Кристина Медова

Plantain belongs to the genus of annual and perennial herbs; rarely, but there are semi-shrubs of the plantain family. Plantain grows in temperate and subtropical zones (sometimes in the tropics), about 250 species of this plant are known. It can be found along roads, in wastelands or in the steppes, in meadows and sands, even in weedy places. The seeds of many plantain species contain mucus and the glycoside aucubin.

Plantain and its medicinal properties are widely used in many countries of Asia and Europe. This plant is also called the "seven-veined fellow traveler", as it has vertical veins on the foliage. This name is even closer to him than the common one - plantain, since he prefers to grow not only near the road, but also asks all animals or people to be fellow travelers. Its ripened seeds stick, as if glued, to the skin of animals, shoes and clothes of people. But, nevertheless, its real name is this. This is largely due to the fact that even the plantain living near the path or near the road is more adaptable and grows well. For him, not a hindrance - compacted and trampled down soil.

In medicine and industry, the seeds of psyllium and Indian plantain are used. For treatment, the leaves of the flea and large plantain are used, since they contain vitamin C, carotene and phytoncides. Infusions are prepared from the leaves and used as an expectorant. Plantain juice is used to treat gastritis and enteritis, as well as to improve digestion.

Useful properties of plantain

Plantain is an excellent human medicine. It perfectly relieves inflammation, serves as an antiseptic, heals and heals wounds, has a positive effect on the secretory function of the stomach, relieves pain, and also has an expectorant and blood-purifying effect. It is used as a powerful analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antiseptic. With the help of an infusion of plantain leaves, you can get rid of not only an ordinary cough or respiratory disease, but also serious diseases such as pulmonary tuberculosis , pleurisy, catarrh of the upper respiratory tract, bronchial asthma and whooping cough.

As a result of special phytochemical studies, it was found that plantain leaves contain components that affect cholesterol metabolism and serve as an anti-ulcer agent. And the alcoholic or aqueous leafy extract of the plant is indispensable for especially severe forms of ulcers. It is also noted that psyllium-containing medicines and the juice of its leaves (as well as the leaves themselves) contain antibacterial substances that help with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, pathogenic microbes of wound infection, hemolytic staphylococci, etc.

Plantain is able to get rid of such diseases of the stomach as gastritis, enteritis, enterocolitis, stomach ulcer , and this is not the whole list of diseases that plantain can heal. They are quite successfully treated and inflammatory diseases of the bladder, hemorrhoids, malaria, many skin diseases - rashes, acne, and sometimes lichen. And, of course, the well-known and indispensable remedy for skin damage is plantain. No folk remedy has such a healing property.

In addition, plantain juice accelerates the release of pus from the wound and helps it heal, relieves inflammation and increases granulation. Plantain juice is also indispensable for non-healing wounds and boils, as well as for first aid during injuries at work and in general.

Phytochemical studies have shown that the leaves of the plant contain substances that have an antiulcer effect and affect cholesterol metabolism. Fresh leaves and especially juice and preparations from it are used as a bacteriostatic drug that acts on pathogenic microbes of wound infection, on hemolytic streptococcus and staphylococcus aureus . , Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus, E. coli.

When using plantain juice for the treatment of wounds, the surface of the wound is quickly cleansed of purulent secretions, the inflammatory process is stopped, and granulations are rapidly growing.

As clinical observations have shown, fresh plantain juice is very effective in the first treatment of industrial or other injuries, as well as for getting rid of wounds that do not heal for a long time, phlegmon, boils.

Scientific research on the benefits of psyllium

Scientific research

Studies have shown that the active substances contained in psyllium can have a positive effect on human health. A number of its therapeutic effects have been experimentally confirmed.

Reduces the symptoms of inflammation. Inflammation is the body's physiological response to cell damage or injury. High levels of inflammatory markers can trigger a number of diseases.

The study of plantain showed that the active phytocomponents present in its composition can affect the focus of inflammation. Flavonoids, glycosides, terpenoids, tannins, which are found in plantain leaves, have pronounced anti-inflammatory properties.

For experimental purposes, psyllium extract was administered to rats with liver damage. Control tests showed a decrease in inflammatory markers .

Another independent study in rats confirmed the anti-inflammatory effects of psyllium extract. Along with this, there was a decrease in liver enzymes .

Preliminary results of some laboratory experiments suggest that psyllium seeds can reduce pro-inflammatory markers, inhibit the growth of altered cells in some types of cancer .

Accelerates wound healing. The results of studies on the ability of psyllium to regenerate skin lesions have been published. It turned out that the healing process is stimulated by the implementation of the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties of psyllium. In addition, it was found that it is able to significantly alleviate pain .

In one experiment, 40 participants were asked to apply a gel containing psyllium and aloe vera extracts. The result showed faster healing of foot ulcers .

Topical application of psyllium extract in animals showed an acceleration of regeneration processes in comparison with the control group .

Heals the digestive organs. Studies have confirmed that psyllium has a healing effect on indigestion .

Psyllium is present in psyllium, a special type of fiber that has a mild laxative effect. The mechanism of purification is realized by the absorption of fluid in the digestive tract during the passage of the food bolus. Studies show that psyllium slows down intestinal motility, which helps with diarrhea and normal bowel movements.

An animal experiment has shown that psyllium angustifolia extract stimulates the regeneration of gastric ulcers .

Other experiments have shown that due to the implementation of the anti-inflammatory mechanism, psyllium relieves diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain - symptoms characteristic of intestinal inflammation .

The use of plantain

Plantain contraindications

Natural extracts and essential oils are part of the plantain, which is a combination of traditional and scientific medicine. Such a union provides the maximum effect from the treatment of bronchitis, skin lesions, dyspepsia , diarrhea and dysentery. One of the most ancient plants is incredibly useful when used systematically.

The unique herb has a sedative effect, helps with mild forms of neurosis, increased irritability and insomnia . Its hypotensive property prevents the appearance of edema, reduces the load on the heart and blood vessels, and helps to reduce pressure.

The use of decoctions and syrups allows you to activate the bronchi and excretory system, enhances the secretion of mucus in the bronchi, causing sputum liquefaction. Traditional medicine uses psyllium extensively. Take it for bronchitis, bronchial asthma, tuberculosis and lung cancer, anthrax and whooping cough. Preparations containing plantain are prescribed to women with inflammatory processes of the internal mucous membrane and muscular membrane of the uterus, ovaries and with parametritis.

Studies have shown that the herb is useful for infertility when ovarian dysfunction is the cause. The treatment of uterine bleeding with plantain is also effective. Insist plantain for external use in case of problems associated with diseases of the oral cavity. Fresh grass in crushed form is applied to areas of the body with bruises, wounds, cuts. Decoctions treat chronic ulcers, relieve pain from burns . Lotions are suitable for removing boils, cleansing and disinfecting purulent wounds.

Adherents of alternative therapy claim that with the help of this medicinal plant, tachycardia and the formation of a large amount of urine (polyuria) can be eliminated. The use of plantain contributes to the normalization of potency in men, relieves headaches, soothes toothache and earache. There is evidence of the medicinal effectiveness of the plant in nephritis, enuresis , diarrhea.

In Russia, folk healers used plantain for a long time in the treatment of malignant tumors (in the form of compresses), orally for lung and stomach cancer. To do this, prepare such a remedy: the leaves are washed, finely chopped and mixed with an equal amount of granulated sugar, let it brew in a warm place for two weeks. Apply this infusion should be 3-4 times a day, one tablespoon 20 minutes before meals. In addition to all this, plantain leaves are used to treat respiratory diseases, infections, intestinal diseases and as a hemostatic agent, enveloping, expectorant and wound healing.

The leaves washed with boiled water should be well ceilingd - and can be applied to the affected areas of the skin with erysipelas, wounds, ulcers, carbuncles, you can also treat the diseased areas with an infusion of plantain leaves. The extract from the roots of the plant is used internally in the treatment of fever and cough of tuberculous origin, after the bites of insects, bees, vipers, as an analgesic and as a means of preventing the formation of tumors.

Infusion of plantain: 1 tablespoon of plantain is steamed with a liter of boiling water, aged over low heat for 10 minutes. A day after infusion, the composition must be filtered and taken 1 tablespoon 3 times a day 15–20 minutes before meals. Useful for catarrh of the upper respiratory tract

Powder from the seeds of the plant should be consumed 1.0 g 3-4 times a day 20-40 minutes before meals.

plantain juice

The juice from fresh plantain leaves is an excellent adjuvant in the treatment of corneal wounds. Due to its antiseptic properties, it inhibits the growth of purulent-inflammatory processes, for example, with staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The use of juice is applicable in acute forms of gastritis, colitis and enterocolitis. You need to take 1 tablespoon of juice 3 times a day 15-20 minutes before meals. A medicinal potion can be prepared for the winter by mixing juice with vodka in equal proportions.

Plantain juice is made from the leaves of the upper part of the large plantain. Juice helps if a person has a chronically inflamed colon or gastric mucosa (and at the same time low acidity). It is drunk three times a day fifteen to thirty minutes before a meal in a tablespoon. The total duration of the course of treatment is thirty days.

May-September is a favorable period for collecting grass. Juice can be obtained in a simple, long-known way. To do this, you need to take the leaves along with the cuttings, rinse with water, scald with boiling water and grind in a meat grinder. The raw materials are squeezed through the canvas (if the juice is thick, then it can be diluted with water in a ratio of 1: 1), after which they boil for 1–2 minutes and take 1–2 tablespoons, diluted in half a glass of water with honey. The course of treatment is 30 days.

Plantain syrup

Winter is the time for colds, viral diseases, it is very important to stock up on medications in time. Plantain has an excellent effect, from which you can make an incredibly healthy syrup.

Natural liquid has superiority over synthetic preparations. For its preparation, you will need fresh leaves and shoots of the plant.

Recipe number 1: in crushed form, the raw materials are shifted in layers, sprinkled with sugar. Then the jar with the workpiece is tightly closed and stored in a cool room. The syrup will be ready in 2 months. It is gently expressed and given to children and adults.

Recipe number 2: 2-3 tablespoons of raw materials must be mixed in a 1: 1 ratio with honey or sugar, hold the closed bowl with the mixture on a warm stove. After cooling, you can take 1 teaspoon of the remedy 4 times a day half an hour before meals for peptic ulcer and gastrointestinal diseases.

Plantain cough

Cough is a very unfavorable symptom of disorders in the body. Before embarking on methods of getting rid of cough, it is necessary to carefully find out the cause of its occurrence. The cough process, accompanied by sputum discharge, is defined as wet, and if it is difficult to get rid of mucus, the cough is considered dry. When irritation appears in the larynx and bronchi, patients often try to quickly resort to the help of all kinds of medicines. Almost every person knows that with any cough, plantain is the first indispensable remedy.

Taking an infusion or decoction, after a few hours you can feel improved breathing, sore throat decreases, a mild expectorant effect is observed. The cause of a cough can be laryngitis (dry cough), tracheitis , various types of bronchitis, etc. Starting treatment at the first sign of a cold (high fever, chills, increased sweating), a person recovers faster.

Psyllium has positive properties in the treatment of coughs, if you grind fresh leaves of psyllium lanceolate, add a small amount of water and heat the mixture to a boil, cool a little and sweeten with honey. You will get a mixture that has no equal in therapeutic action. Take 1 teaspoon every hour.

Plantain based recipes

Recipe number 1: taking 3 teaspoons of dry leaves in a glass of boiling water, they need to be infused for 6-8 hours and take 1/3 cup half an hour before meals for gastritis, colitis and stomach ulcers.

Recipe number 2: you need to grind fresh plantain leaves, add 200-250 ml of water and bring to a boil. In the resulting mixture, add 3-4 tablespoons of natural honey and take this slurry 1 teaspoon hourly with a strong cold cough.

You can make a delicious tea with a characteristic smell and drink it to get rid of a cough.

Tea recipe number 1: 2-3 teaspoons of dried leaves should be poured with hot boiled water, infused for 15 minutes and drunk in a glass 3-4 times a day, adding 1 teaspoon of natural honey.

Tea recipe number 2: it is recommended to pour 4 tablespoons of dried plantain leaves with 500 ml of hot boiled water, wrap and leave for 1.5–2 hours to infuse, then strain and take during the day in a warm form 4 times, 1 tablespoon before food. The course of treatment is seven days.

Decoction of plantain

plantain decoction

A decoction of plantain is widely used to treat ailments in the intestines and stomach, as well as in diseases of the respiratory tract (bronchitis) and in the usual cough. The broth is made as follows: a glass of boiling water is mixed with two tablespoons of leaves of a large plantain (such a variety), covered with a lid on top, and then placed in a boiling steam bath and kept for about half an hour. The remedy must be allowed to cool, passed through gauze or a strainer and drunk ten or fifteen minutes before meals, half or a third of a glass of decoction three or four times a day. The same composition is used to wash the wound, as well as make a lotion.

A strong dry cough causes a lot of suffering and discomfort. To relieve seizures and soften sputum, decoctions prepared from the collections of various plants, which include plantain, are recommended.

Recipe number 1: you need to mix 3 tablespoons of plantain leaves, coltsfoot leaves and pine buds. 2 tablespoons of the mixture is poured into 300 ml of warm water and boiled for 5-10 minutes. Then the medicine must be removed from the fire, insisted for 1 hour in a dark place and taken 100 ml 2 times a day.

Recipe number 2: you should take 2 tablespoons of large plantain leaves, the color of black elderberry and common violet grass, mix everything well, add 250 ml of warm water, bring to a boil and cook over low heat for 5 minutes, then wrap well and leave to infuse for about for 1 hour. Take this remedy 2 times a day, 100 ml.

Plantain infusion

Plantain infusion is indispensable for whooping cough, tuberculosis, bronchitis and bronchial asthma due to its expectorant effect. An aqueous infusion of the leaves of the plant heals and disinfects abscesses, wounds, skin ulcers, boils and cuts. The juice obtained from the leaves helps with chronic gastritis, ulcers and other diseases of the intestines and stomach. His recipe: to insist raw materials on vodka, taking yarrow and plantain in the same amount, and use it to stop the blood, to disinfect and heal various wounds.

The infusion is usually prepared from the tender parts of the plant - the leaves, poured with warm water and insisted for the time necessary to saturate, or kept for several minutes in a water bath, and then insisted.

Recipe number 1: you will need 3-4 tablespoons of crushed leaves and half a liter of not very hot water. The composition is insisted for about 1.5 hours and taken 1-2 tablespoons several times a day.

Recipe No. 2: 25 g of raw materials are poured into 200 ml of boiling water, insisted for 1 hour, filtered and taken 1 tablespoon 3-4 times a day.

Plantain tincture

Plantain infusion

For medicinal purposes, extracts are prepared from plant materials using alcohol or vodka. This is how the tincture is made. To do this, parts of the plant are crushed, poured into a dark glass dish, poured with an extracting liquid and tightly sealed. The tincture is aged for a certain time at room temperature in a place protected from light penetration, it needs to be shaken from time to time. Alcohol tincture can be stored for a long time, it is dosed as needed in the quantities indicated by doctors or traditional healers.

Recipe for plantain tincture: 200 ml of plantain juice (or just 200 grams of leaves) is required to pour 200 ml of vodka and insist in a dark place for 15 days, then strain. Take this remedy 1 time per day at the rate of 10 kg of human weight 3 ml of tincture. The duration of the course is 3-4 weeks.

plantain leaf

Plantain leaves help to disinfect the wound, and are also a hemostatic agent. To do this, the leaves of the plant must be washed, and then either applied whole to the wounds, or crushed and applied to it. The result will be a weakening of painful sensations, as well as stopped blood. Plantain is a sedative and is used for both insomnia and allergies. Plantain remedy: you need to mix a glass of very hot water with three tablespoons of plant leaves and leave for four hours, and then pass through a strainer or gauze, after which you can drink the medicine three times a day for a third of a glass.

The leaves contain aukubin glycoside, ascorbic acid, carotene and vitamin K. They contain enough bitter and tannins called methylmethionines. Fresh leaves contain flavonoids, mannitol, sorbitol, citric and oleanolic acids are revealed. Raw materials are hygroscopic, so they should be stored in airtight containers. Means from plantain leaves are saturated with pectins, saponins and other beneficial substances that have a positive effect on the male sex glands. It is good to use leaves for colitis, abdominal pain, dyspepsia, also preparations from plantain leaves.used to treat cholecystitis .

Studies conducted in the USSR and abroad have revealed the pharmacodynamic activity of the leaves of the plantain greater. Juice is squeezed out of fresh plantain leaves, an infusion and extract are prepared, which are used as a hemostatic, bacteriostatic, wound healing, expectorant and hypotensive agent. In severe forms of peptic ulcer, aqueous and alcoholic extracts of plantain leaves help very well.

Infusion of plantain leaves: 1 tablespoon of herb is brewed with one glass of boiling water, infused for 10 minutes. It is recommended to take the medicine one hour before meals, distributing the entire amount per day.

The influence of such a drug on the inhibition of the motor activity of the stomach, the antispasmodic effect of the drug, its ability to normalize the content of cholesterol, b-lipoproteins, lipids, phospholipids, and blood pressure has been experimentally proven.

Crushed or ground leaves of the plant are also used to stop the blood. It must be remembered that before using blood-stopping agents, an analysis of prothrombin is necessary, as well as a preliminary consultation with a doctor, otherwise it can be harmful to health by increasing the index, the result may be a stroke.

plantain seeds

Psyllium seeds are used to tighten nipple cracks in mothers who are breastfeeding, and seeds are also used to make poultices to relieve inflammation in diseases of the skin or mucous membranes. To do this, the seeds are placed in hot water, and then, after allowing them to swell, they are crushed. For the treatment of diabetes mellitus or female infertility, a decoction of seeds is used, it is taken three times a day for one or two months in a tablespoon.

The seeds of various types of plantains contain mucus. Fatty oil, oleanolic acid and nitrogenous substances are also found in them. Daily intake of seeds helps reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Psyllium seeds cleanse the body of bile acids, reduce blood sugar levels . A decoction of seeds is used for hormonal deficiency in women.

Infusion recipe number 1: 1 tablespoon of seeds is poured into 250 ml of water, boiled for five minutes and infused for 30–40 minutes. Apply the remedy 1 tablespoon 3 times a day. The course of treatment is 1-2 months. A decoction is also suitable for men in order to prevent impotence and prostate diseases after 35 years.

Infusion recipe No. 2: 25 g of raw materials are poured into 200 ml of boiling water, shaken for a long time, then filtered. Take 1 tablespoon 3 times a day before meals. Disorders of the stomach are treated with seed powder, which has a fixing property.

Decoctions and infusions of seeds are used for achilia, constipation and the presence of chronic spasms of smooth muscles. In this case, you need to take 1 tablespoon of seeds on an empty stomach and drink warm water.

Psyllium husk

The husk is obtained by splitting the seeds of the plant. It is used for constipation, to treat skin irritations, and is widely used by Chinese and Indian doctors and healers to eliminate problems with the bladder. Husks are treated for constipation, hemorrhoids. Husk helps to reduce pressure and restore the function of the cardiovascular system. The husk is rich in insoluble fiber - it is a mild laxative, alkaloids and amino acids are present in the composition of the seed husk.

The husk is used along with the seeds as a thickener in cooking and cosmetics. When combined with water, it swells to form a glandular mass, excellent for stimulating the gastrointestinal tract, ideal for eliminating colon irritation and hemorrhoidal symptoms. The use of such a natural purifier helps to release toxins, reduces the risk of cancer.

The husk supports the reproduction of beneficial bacteria Lactobacillus acidophilus and bifidobacteria, recommended for the normal functioning of the intestines. It is included in trendy diets: a property that causes a feeling of satiety, allows you to reduce weight. Healing husk should always be taken with water. Drink about 6-8 glasses of water throughout the day to prevent constipation and bloating.

Possible side effects

Plantain leaves can be consumed raw or processed. For most healthy people, it does not pose any danger.

When taking active psyllium supplements orally, there is a chance of developing the following unpleasant symptoms:

Eruptions on the skin.

Diarrhea.

Bloating.

Nausea, vomiting.

Repeated excess of the dosage recommended by the doctor can provoke severe allergic reactions, up to anaphylactic shock.

Excessive addiction to drugs, which contain fiber obtained from the seeds of psyllium (psyllium), can lead to indigestion. In this case, there is a feeling of fullness and bloating, active gas formation [10] .

Start your psyllium supplements at low doses to avoid side effects. A gradual increase in dosage will allow you to control your well-being. If allergic reactions occur, plantain should be discontinued and consult a doctor.

Plantain contraindications

Plantain is contraindicated in hyperacidity and excessive production of gastric juice, as well as in certain types of ulcers of the gastrointestinal tract. There are also some types of intestinal and stomach ulcers, in which psyllium preparations are contraindicated. Therefore, before using drugs based on plantain, you should consult a doctor.

Contraindication for treatment with this plant will be increased blood clotting, the presence of blood clots. Long-term use of psyllium preparations can cause high blood clotting and cause a tendency to thrombosis.

Another contraindication is the individual intolerance of this plant or allergic reactions to it. For this reason, allergy sufferers and asthmatics should be especially careful when starting treatment with psyllium preparations. To begin with, you can take small doses so that the body gets used to the new medicine, and thereby avoid severe allergic reactions.

Optical CDs appeared in general access in 1982, the prototype was released even earlier - in 1979. Initially, compacts were developed as a replacement for vinyl discs, as a better and more reliable medium. It is believed that laser discs are the result of the joint work of the teams of two technology corporations - the Japanese Sony and the Dutch Philips.

At the same time, the basic technology of "cold lasers", which made the appearance of laser discs possible, was developed by Soviet scientists Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolai Basov .. They were awarded the Nobel Prize for their invention. The technology developed further, and in the 70s, Philips developed a way to burn CDs, which marked the beginning of the CD. First, the company's engineers created ALP (audio long play) as an alternative to vinyl records.

The diameter of the ALP disks was approximately 30 centimeters. A little later, engineers reduced the diameter of the discs, while playing time decreased to 1 hour. Laserdiscs and their reproducing device were first demonstrated by Philips in 1979. After that, the company began to look for a partner for further work on the project - the technology was seen by the developers as international, and it was difficult to develop it to the required level and popularize it on its own.

The beginning of everything

The management decided to try to establish contacts with technology companies from Japan, while this country was at the forefront of hi-end technologies. To do this, Philips delegates went to the country, they managed to meet with the president of Sony, who became interested in technology.

Almost immediately formeda team of Philips-Sony engineers, they developed the first technology specifications. The Sony vice-president insisted on increasing the volume of the disc, he wanted the CD to be able to hold Beethoven's ninth symphony, for which the disc was expanded from 1 hour to 74 minutes (there is also an opinion that this is just a beautiful marketing story). The amount of data that can fit on such a disk is 640 MB. Engineers have also developed sound quality parameters. For example, the sampling frequency of stereo signals was regulated at the level of 44.1 kHz (for one channel 22.05 kHz) with a bit depth of 16 bits each. This is how the Red Book standard was born.

The name of the new technology did not appear suddenly - it was chosen from several options, including Minirack, Mini Disc, Compact Rack. As a result, the developers combined the two names, having received a hybrid Compact Disc. Not least the name was chosen because of the growing popularity of audio cassettes ( Compact Cassette technology ).

Philips and Sony were also instrumental in developing the specification for the first digital compact discs, known as the Yellow Book or CD-ROM. The new specification made it possible to store on disks not only audio, but also text and graphic data. The disk type was determined automatically when reading the title. The problem was that a Yellow Book CD could only work with certain types of drives that weren't universal.

On August 17, 1982, the first CD was released at the Philips factory in Langenhagen, Germany. The album The Visitors was recorded on it.ABBA groups. It is worth noting that the lacquer coating of the first discs was not of very high quality, so compact buyers often spoiled them. Over time, the quality of discs has improved. The first few years they were used exclusively in hi-fi equipment, they were used as a replacement for vinyl records and cassettes.

Starting in 2000, 700 MB discs began to appear on sale, which made it possible to record audio with a total duration of up to 80 minutes. They completely ousted 650 MB disks from the market. There are also 800 MB media, but they were not suitable for all drives, so such discs were not widely used. It was possible to increase the amount of space available for data storage by reducing the distance between tracks. So, for example, for disks with a capacity of 650 MB, the distance between tracks is 1.7 microns, and for 800 MB disks this figure is reduced to 1.5 microns. Also, the first speed is 1.41 m / s, and the second 1.39 m / s.

How it works

The disk consists of several layers. The substrate is polycarbonate, its thickness is 1.2 mm, diameter is 120 mm. Another layer is placed on the substrate - metal (it can be gold, silver or, most often, aluminum). Next, the metal layer is protected with varnish, on which graphics are applied. The substrate reliably protects the metal layer, so very deep scratches interfere with reading. The diameter of the hole in the disk is 15 mm.

The data storage format for disks is Red Book (it was discussed above). Read errors are corrected using the Reed-Solomon code so that light scratches do not impair the readability of the disc.

Data is written to the disc in the form of a spiral track of the so-called pits (recesses), which are extruded into the polycarbonate base. Each pita is approximately 100 nm deep and 500 nm wide. Pita length from 850 nm to 3.5 µm. The pits scatter or absorb light, the substrate reflects. Thus, the recorded disk is an excellent example of a reflective diffraction grating.

The disc is read using a laser beam with a wavelength of 780 nm, which is emitted by a semiconductor laser. The principle of reading is to register the change in the intensity of the reflected light. So, the laser beam converges on the information layer, the diameter of the light spot in this case is 1.2 microns. The maximum signal is recorded between pits. In the case of contact with the pit, a lower light intensity is recorded. Changes in intensity are converted into an electrical signal, with which the equipment works.

How a disk is created

The first step is to prepare the data for serialization;

Photolithography is the second stage, this is the process of creating a disc stamp. First, a glass disk is created, on which a layer of photoresistive material is applied, and information is recorded on it. The material changes its physico-chemical properties under the influence of light;

Data is recorded using a laser beam. When the laser power is increased (when it is necessary to create a pit), the chemical bonds of the molecules of the photoresistive material are destroyed, and it freezes;

The photoresist is etched (in various ways, from plasma to acid), areas not affected by the laser are removed from the matrix;

The disc is placed in a galvanic bath, where a layer of nickel is deposited on its surface;

The discs are stamped by injection molding, the original glass disc is used as the source;

Next, metal is sprayed onto the information layer;

A protective varnish is applied to the outside, on which a graphic image is already applied.

What about CD-RW?

CD-RW is a type of compact disc that appeared in 1997. Initially, the standard was called CD-Erasable (CD-E, erasable CD).

It was a real breakthrough in the field of recording and storing information. After all, getting an inexpensive and capacious storage medium was the dream of thousands of engineers and users. CD-RW is similar in structure and principle of operation to a conventional CD, but the recording layer is different - it is a specialized alloy of chalcogenides. The most commonly used silver-indium-antimony-tellurium. When heated above the melting point, such an alloy passes from the crystalline state to the amorphous state.

The phase transition in this case is reversible, which is the basis for the rewriting process. The thickness of the active layer of the disc is only 0.1 microns, so it is easy to work on the substance with the laser. The recording process occurs when exposed to a laser beam, the active layer in this case passes into the melt (those of its areas that were affected by the laser). Further, heat diffuses into the substrate, and the melt passes into an amorphous state. In amorphous segments, such characteristics as the dielectric constant, the reflection coefficient and, consequently, the intensity of the reflected light, change. It carries information about the record on the disk. Reading is done with a laser of lower power, which cannot affect the active layer. During recording, the active layer heats up to 200 degrees Celsius,

Repeated use of CD-RW leads to mechanical fatigue of the working layer. Therefore, the engineers who developed the technology used substances with a low coefficient of fatigue accumulation. A CD-RW can withstand about a thousand rewriting cycles.

DVD - even more capacity!

The first DVDs appeared in Japan in 1996, they appeared as a response to the demand of users and businesses who needed more and more capacious media. Initially, high-capacity drives were developed by several companies at once. Two independent directions of development appeared: Multimedia Compact Disc (Philips and Sony), - Super Disc (8 large corporations, including Toshiba and Time Warner). A little later, both directions merged into one under the influence of IBM. She convinced the partners not to repeat the events of the "format war" when there was a battle for priority between the videotape standards "Video Home System" and "Betamax".

The technology was announced in September 1995, the same year the developers published specifications. The first DVD burner was released in 1997.

It was possible to increase the recording capacity while maintaining the same dimensions by using a red laser with a wavelength of 650 nm. In this case, the track pitch is two times smaller than that of the CD and is 0.74 μm.

Blu-ray is the latest optical media

Another type of optical media with a much higher data density than CD or DVD. The standard was developed by the international consortium BDA. The first prototype appeared in October 2000.

The technology involves the use of a short-wavelength laser (wavelength 405 nm), hence the name. The letter "e" was removed because the expression blue ray is common in English and cannot be patented. The use of a blue (blue-violet) laser made it possible to narrow the track to 0.32 µm, increasing the data recording density. The media reading speed has been increased to 432 Mbps.

UDF - Universal Disk Format

UDF is a file system format specification that is OS independent. It is designed to store files on optical media - both CD and DVD and Blu-Ray. UDF has no 2GB or 4GB limit for writable files, so this format is ideal for high-capacity discs like DVDs and Blu-rays.

Optical discs and the Internet

Technology companies continue to improve optical discs. So, Sony and Panasonic back in 2016 were able to increase the capacity of optical media to 3.3 TB. At the same time, the performance of the disks is maintained, according to Sony representatives, up to 100 years.

However, all types of optical discs are gradually losing popularity - with the development of the Internet, the need for users to accumulate data on discs disappears. Information can be stored in the cloud, which is much more convenient (how much more secure it is is another question). Compact discs are no longer as popular as they were a few years ago, but they are unlikely to be completely forgotten (as in the case of audio cassettes) - they will be used to create archives of important business information.

If terabyte optical discs go into production, their use will be limited - perhaps they will be used to distribute 4K movies and modern games with a set of various bonuses. But most of all they will be used to create backups. And if Sony is telling the truth about the age-old preservation of recorded data, then the business will use the new technology very actively.

«Зени́т» — торговое название фотоаппаратуры, главным образом, однообъективных зеркальных фотоаппаратов, производившейся в 1952—2005 годах Красногорским механическим заводом им. Зверева (КМЗ) в городе Красногорске Московской области и с 1973 (1975?) года — Оптико-механическим заводом (ныне Вилейский завод «Зенит») в городе Вилейка (БССР) Белорусского оптико-механического объединения (БелОМО). Товарный знак «Зенит» принадлежит КМЗ.[1][2]. Аппаратура этого типа продавалась в СССР, а также экспортировалась «Машприборинторгом» в 74 страны мира[3]. Поэтому марка «Зенит» считается самым известным в мире названием советских фотоаппаратов.

На протяжении всей своей истории фотоаппараты с маркой Красногорского механического завода (КМЗ) шли на экспорт не только в развивающиеся страны, но и в Германию, Италию, Австрию, Францию и Англию, где успешно конкурировали с западной продукцией. «Зениты» серии «Е» стали самыми массовыми зеркальными камерами в мире: всего их различных модификаций было произведено около пятнадцати миллионов. Фотоаппараты «Зенит» нередко становились лауреатами престижных премий и удостаивались восторженных откликов со стороны общественности, средств массовой информации и экспертов области. Так, например, в 1979 году популярный английский журнал для фотолюбителей «What camera?» признал «Зенит-ЕМ» лучшим аппаратом года. А все началось сразу после окончания Второй мировой войны, когда Красногорский механический завод получил задание по выпуску мирной продукции: проекционные аппараты для государственной библиотеки им. В.И.Ленина, театральные бинокли и, наконец, фотоаппараты. В 1947 году на КМЗ была заложена производственная база для изготовления фотоаппаратуры и научных приборов. Спустя год были выпущены первые пятьдесят аппаратов «Зоркий», которые получили большую популярность и стали прообразом серии «Зенит». История же непосредственно фотоаппаратов «Зенит» началась в 1952 году, когда дальнейшие эксперименты и конструкторские разработки модели «Зоркий» привели к появлению нового зеркального малоформатного фотоаппарата. В 1955 году был выпущен первый по настоящему массовый аппарат семейства «Зенит» - «Зенит-С», который приобрел улучшенный затвор и синхроконтакт.

«Зенит» и «Зенит-С» имели зеркало, которое опускалось только при взводе затвора, таким образом, кадр в видоискателе был виден только при взведенном затворе. Так как оставлять затвор во взведенном состоянии было довольно вредно для его пружин, то на ранних «Зенитах» четко действовало правило, известное каждому их владельцу: Взвел затвор – снимай. После того, как были разработаны и поставлены на поточное производство высококачественные дальномерные камеры типа «Зоркий-3» и «Зоркий-4», не уступавшие мировым аналогам, на Красногорском механическом заводе решили создать и новый «Зенит». При этом изначально он получил название «Кристалл».

Этот фотоаппарат имел сверхточный и сверхпрочный корпус из алюминиевого сплава, представлявший собой одну-единственную деталь, что опередило мировой уровень развития зеркальных фотоаппаратов на много лет вперед. Кроме того, литой стала и верхняя крышка аппарата, причем литой с очень толстыми стенками. В 1962 году фотоаппарат стал называться уже «Зенит-3М»: отличие от «Кристалла» было только в оформлении верхней крышки, которая перестала быть такой монументальной.

«Зениты» третьего семейства стали первыми «миллионниками» в советской фотопромышленности и также первыми пошли в массовый экспорт. В этот же период в Германии для массового выпуска была заказана автоматическая линия станков, позволяющая производить высокоточную обработку корпусов, что стало технологической основой для производства фотоаппаратов на КМЗ вплоть до конца 90-х годов. На смену успешному третьему семейству аппаратов пришел внешне громоздкий, крупный и тяжелый «Зенит-4».

У него были свои достоинства – это достаточный для середины 1960-х диапазон выдержек, а главное, то, чего нет на многих современных камерах - синхронизация на любой скорости затвора с любыми вспышками. Кроме того, «Зенит-4» впервые получил встроенный экспонометр и видоискатель. Работа экспонометра была возможна без ограничений как с призмой, так и с удобной шахтой с лупой для точной наводки. Видоискатель стал огромным плюсом этой камеры, однако, был один существенный недостаток - задержка между нажатием на спуск и срабатыванием затвора, которая по сути напрочь убивала все то хорошее, что было в этом аппарате. Пятое семейство фотоаппаратов «Зенит» стало настоящим прорывом в советской и западной фотопромышленности. Дело в том, что в «Зените-5» впервые в мире среди серийных массовых камер общего назначения появился встроенный электропривод.

Питался он от формально несменной аккумуляторной батареи, но набранной из обычных аккумуляторов типа «Д» (которые можно было заменять по мере выхода из строя), протягивал пленку со скоростью около 1-1,5 кадра в секунду и подзаряжался от сети 127 или 220 вольт при помощи зарядного устройства, продававшегося в комплекте. В остальных компонентах камера не отличалась от своего предшественника «Зенита-4». Следующее поколение аппаратов – «Зенит-6» - отличалось значительным упрощением и ограниченными возможностями.

В частности, камера не была оснащена экспонометром. Камера под названием «Зенит-66», выпущенная в это же время, отличалась от «Зенита-3М» только возвратным зеркалом, которое давало возможность видеть кадр в видоискателе до взвода и сразу после спуска затвора.

Вышеперечисленные аппараты «Зенит» пятого и шестого семейства постигла одна и та же судьба – быстрое забвение. Дело в том, что на смену им пришел новый аппарат «Зенит-Е», который стал настоящей классикой. Собственно говоря, когда мы говорим фотоаппарат «Зенит», чаще всего вспоминаются именно неприхотливые, надежные и долговечные камеры «Зенит-Е», разошедшиеся по миру десятками миллионов штук.

«Зенит-Е» вобрал в себя все лучшее от своих предшественников. Резьбовое крепление объектива и мягкий, прекрасно ощущающийся спуск затвора, подъемное зеркало постоянного визирования, встроенный экспонометр и другие технологические особенности стали основой успеха этих камер. Время, проходящее между нажатием на кнопку спуска и началом движения шторок затвора, у этой модели, наверное, - наименьшее среди всех «Зенитов», что позволяет снимать движение «влет», а не с задержкой в немалые доли секунды.

Фотоаппарат «Зенит-Е» имел феноменальный успех, он массово продавался как в Советском Союза, так и за рубежом. Спрос на эти камеры был такой, что в Белоруссии, в городе Вилейке, при технической помощи КМЗ было развернуто новое производство фотоаппаратов. Правда, если качество первых выпусков было на должном уровне, то в конце 1980-х - начале 1990-х годов белорусские «Зениты» начали значительно отставать от своих подмосковных собратьев. Более дешевым и простым вариантом модели «Зенит-Е» стал фотоаппарат «Зенит-В», выпускаемый с так называемым внешним экспонометром, который фотограф в случае необходимости мог купить отдельно.

В дальнейшем аппараты семейства «Зенит-Е» стали заметно устаревать, и КМЗ требовалось улучшить фотоаппарат, не удорожая его и одновременно не ломая с трудом налаженное массовое производство. Поэтому все технологические новинки были достаточно скромными. Так появились аппараты «Зенит-ЕМ» и «Зенит-БМ», которые отличались прыгающей или, как у нас говорили, «моргающей» диафрагмой.

Вследствие этого оперативность работы с объективами, снабженными механизмом такой диафрагмы (индекс «М»), резко повысилась. Вторым дополнением стал фокусировочный экран, который получил в центре микропризмы, значительно облегчившие точную наводку на резкость. В новом семействе «Зенитов» под названием «TTL»/«12» были введены изменения в конструкцию затвора, повысившие точность отработки выдержек и равномерность хода шторок. Необходимость в этом новшестве была связана с тем, что постепенно в стране развивалась цветная фотография, и эти вопросы становились жизненно важными, особенно при съемке на слайды. Самым долгоживущим из аппаратов этой серии в производстве на Красногорском механическом заводе стал «Зенит-11»: последние такие камеры были собраны на КМЗ аж в 1992 году. Этот фотоаппарат выпускался в течение одиннадцати лет и хорошо зарекомендовал себя в эксплуатации. Существовали и другие модификации аппаратов «Зенит», которые обладали как своими технологическими новшествами, так и существенными недостатками. Некоторые из них, как, например аппарат «Зенит-18», были вскоре сняты с производства из-за конструктивных недоработок. Аппараты «Зенит» стали настоящей гордостью и ярким достижением советской фотопромышленности. Родившиеся в 50 - 60-е годы камеры «Зенит» прожили долгую жизнь и даже пережили свою эпоху. И сегодня многие любители фотографии не отказываются от своих «Зенитов», несмотря на появление современных, более молодых и точных автоматических аппаратов. На эти камеры запечатлены счастливые моменты из жизни миллионов людей по всему миру. «Зенит» вошел в историю как самый массовый зеркальный фотоаппарат XX века!

"Zenith" is the trade name for photographic equipment, mainly single-lens reflex cameras, produced in 1952-2005 by the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant. Zvereva (KMZ) in the city of Krasnogorsk, Moscow Region, and since 1973 (1975?) - by the Optical and Mechanical Plant (now the Zenit Vileika Plant) in the city of Vileyka (BSSR) of the Belarusian Optical and Mechanical Association (BelOMO). The trademark "Zenith" belongs to KMZ.[1][2]. Equipment of this type was sold in the USSR, and was also exported by Mashpriborintorg to 74 countries of the world [3]. Therefore, the brand "Zenith" is considered the most famous name of Soviet cameras in the world. Throughout its history, cameras bearing the trademark of the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant (KMZ) have been exported not only to developing countries, but also to Germany,Italy, Austria, France and England, where they successfully competed with Western products. "Zeniths" of the "E" series became the most massive SLR cameras in the world: in total, about fifteen million of their various modifications were produced. Cameras "Zenith" often became laureates of prestigious awards and received enthusiastic responses from the public, the media and experts in the field. So, for example, in 1979, the popular English magazine for amateur photographers "What camera?" recognized "Zenith-EM" as the best apparatus of the year. And it all started immediately after the end of the Second World War, when the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant received the task of producing civilian products: projection devices for the state library. VI Lenin, theater binoculars and, finally, cameras.In 1947, a production base for the manufacture of photographic equipment and scientific instruments was laid at the KMZ. A year later, the first fifty Zorki devices were produced, which gained great popularity and became the prototype of the Zenith series. The history of the Zenith cameras itself began in 1952, when further experiments and design developments of the Zorkiy model led to the emergence of a new small-format SLR camera. In 1955, the first truly mass-produced device of the Zenit family, Zenit-S, was released, which acquired an improved shutter and sync contact. In 1947, a production base for the manufacture of photographic equipment and scientific instruments was laid at the KMZ. A year later, the first fifty Zorki devices were produced, which gained great popularity and became the prototype of the Zenith series.The history of the Zenith cameras itself began in 1952, when further experiments and design developments of the Zorkiy model led to the emergence of a new small-format SLR camera. In 1955, the first truly mass-produced device of the Zenit family, Zenit-S, was released, which acquired an improved shutter and sync contact. In 1947, a production base for the manufacture of photographic equipment and scientific instruments was laid at the KMZ. A year later, the first fifty Zorki devices were produced, which gained great popularity and became the prototype of the Zenith series. The history of the Zenith cameras itself began in 1952, when further experiments and design developments of the Zorkiy model led to the emergence of a new small-format SLR camera. In 1955, the first truly mass-produced device of the Zenit family, Zenit-S, was released,which acquired an improved shutter and sync contact. The history of the Zenith cameras itself began in 1952, when further experiments and design developments of the Zorkiy model led to the emergence of a new small-format SLR camera. In 1955, the first truly mass-produced device of the Zenit family, Zenit-S, was released, which acquired an improved shutter and sync contact. The history of the Zenith cameras itself began in 1952, when further experiments and design developments of the Zorkiy model led to the emergence of a new small-format SLR camera. In 1955, the first truly mass-produced device of the Zenit family, Zenit-S, was released, which acquired an improved shutter and sync contact. "Zenith" and "Zenith-S" had a mirror that went down only when the shutter was cocked,so the frame in the viewfinder was visible only when the shutter was cocked. Since leaving the bolt in the cocked state was quite harmful for its springs, the rule known to each of their owners clearly operated on the early Zeniths: cocked the bolt - shoot. After the high-quality rangefinder cameras of the Zorkiy-3 and Zorkiy-4 types, which were not inferior to world analogues, were developed and put into mass production, they decided to create a new Zenith at the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant. At the same time, it was originally called "Crystal". This camera had an ultra-precise and ultra-strong aluminum alloy body, which was a single piece, which outstripped the world level of development of SLR cameras for many years to come. In addition, the top cover of the apparatus has also become cast, and cast with very thick walls. In 1962,the camera began to be called Zenit-3M: the difference from the Kristall was only in the design of the top cover, which ceased to be so monumental. "Zeniths" of the third family became the first "millionaires" in the Soviet photographic industry and also the first to go into mass export. In the same period, an automatic line of machine tools was ordered in Germany for mass production, allowing for high-precision processing of cases, which became the technological basis for the production of cameras at KMZ until the end of the 90s. The outwardly bulky, large and heavy Zenit-4 has replaced the successful third family of vehicles. It had its advantages - it was a shutter speed range sufficient for the mid-1960s, and most importantly, what many modern cameras do not have is synchronization at any shutter speed with any flashes.In addition, "Zenith-4" for the first time received a built-in exposure meter and viewfinder. The operation of the exposure meter was possible without restrictions both with a prism and with a convenient shaft with a magnifying glass for precise aiming. The viewfinder was a huge plus of this camera, however, there was one significant drawback - the delay between pressing the shutter and the shutter, which, in fact, completely killed all the good that was in this device. The fifth family of Zenit cameras was a real breakthrough in the Soviet and Western photographic industry. The fact is that in Zenit-5, for the first time in the world, among mass-produced general-purpose cameras, a built-in electric drive appeared. It was powered by a formally non-replaceable rechargeable battery,but recruited from ordinary “D” type batteries (which could be replaced as it failed), pulled the film at a speed of about 1-1.5 frames per second and was recharged from a 127 or 220 volt network using the charger supplied with the kit. In other components, the camera did not differ from its predecessor "Zenith-4". The next generation of devices - Zenit-6 - was distinguished by significant simplification and limited capabilities. In particular, the camera was not equipped with a light meter. The camera called "Zenith-66", released at the same time, differed from the "Zenith-3M" only by a return mirror, which made it possible to see the frame in the viewfinder before cocking and immediately after the shutter was released. The above-mentioned devices "Zenith"of the fifth and sixth families suffered the same fate - rapid oblivion. The fact is that they were replaced by the new Zenit-E device, which has become a real classic. As a matter of fact, when we say the Zenit camera, it is the unpretentious, reliable and durable Zenit-E cameras that are sold around the world in tens of millions of pieces that most often come to mind. "Zenith-E" has absorbed all the best from its predecessors. A threaded lens mount and a soft-feeling shutter release, a constant-view pop-up mirror, a built-in exposure meter and other technological features have been the foundation of these cameras' success. The time elapsed between pressing the shutter button and the beginning of the movement of the shutter curtains, this model is probably the smallest among all the Zeniths,which allows you to shoot the movement "in flight", and not with a delay of considerable fractions of a second. The Zenit-E camera was a phenomenal success, it was massively sold both in the Soviet Union and abroad. The demand for these cameras was such that in Belarus, in the city of Vileyka, with the technical assistance of KMZ, a new production of cameras was launched. True, if the quality of the first releases was at the proper level, then in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Belarusian Zeniths began to lag far behind their counterparts near Moscow. A cheaper and simpler version of the Zenit-E model was the Zenit-V camera, produced with a so-called external exposure meter, which the photographer could buy separately if necessary. In the future, the devices of the Zenit-E family began to noticeably become obsolete,and KMZ needed to improve the camera without increasing its cost and at the same time without breaking the hard-established mass production. Therefore, all technological innovations were quite modest. This is how the Zenit-EM and Zenit-BM devices appeared, which were distinguished by a jumping or, as we used to say, “blinking” diaphragm. As a result, the efficiency of working with lenses equipped with such a diaphragm mechanism (index "M") has increased dramatically. The second addition was the focusing screen, which received a microprism in the center, which greatly facilitated precise focusing. In the new family of "Zeniths" called "TTL" / "12", changes were introduced to the design of the shutter, which increased the accuracy of working out shutter speeds and the uniformity of the shutters.The need for this innovation was due to the fact that color photography was gradually developing in the country, and these issues became vital, especially when shooting on slides. The longest-lived of the devices of this series in production at the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant was the Zenit-11: the last such cameras were assembled at KMZ already in 1992. This camera has been produced for eleven years and has proven itself in operation. There were other modifications of the Zenit devices, which had both their technological innovations and significant shortcomings. Some of them, such as the Zenit-18 apparatus, were soon discontinued due to design flaws. Devices "Zenith" became a real pride and a striking achievement of the Soviet photographic industry. The Zenith cameras, born in the 1950s and 1960s,have lived a long life and even outlived their era. And today, many photography enthusiasts do not give up their "Zeniths", despite the appearance of modern, younger and more accurate automatic devices. These cameras capture happy moments in the lives of millions of people around the world.ру. «Зенит» вошел в историю как самый массовый зеркальный фотоаппарат XX века!

The Peterhof Watch Factory has been counting its history since 1721, when Peter the Great signed a decree on the founding of a lapidary mill-factory, and watches have been made here since the 50s of the 20th century - more than a modest age for a watch manufactory.

One way or another, the clock was traced in the history of the plant from the very foundation: in the 18th and 19th centuries, the lapidary mill was engaged in stone carving and helped build St. Petersburg. Columns, caskets, vases, as well as stone cases for imported clock mechanisms were made here. In Soviet times, the plant refocused on the production of technical stone: it grew artificial rubies for the needs of the military industry, including for watches. And after the war, the plant gained a name and fame: the Pobeda and Raketa watches were made here for the entire Union. In the peak 70-80s, 5,000,000 hours were made annually in Peterhof. At the same time, "Rocket" was actively sold abroad: the trademark was registered in 41 countries - from Japan to Cuba ⓘ .

The 90s brought decline, the plant's territory was reduced to several workshops, and, like other Soviet watchmakers, Raketa was on the verge of bankruptcy - until it was bought by the French, who believed in the brand. Today the plant is located in two cities: in Moscow, there is a creative department of 15 people, in Peterhof - about 100 people at the manufactory. Several workshops remained from the enterprise of the allied scale. Nevertheless, Raketa manages to produce unique novelties every year, produce parts for premium watch manufactories and even machine tools for other industries.

Manufactured in Russia

The key value declared by Raketa is manufactured in Russia. Let's add from ourselves: and designed in Soviet Union. All the developments of the glorious Soviet past - the production base, drawings of mechanisms and design - are preserved, polished and exposed to the light.

The creative department basically does not develop a new design: "Rocket" picks up Soviet developments from huge archives, adapts the design and puts inside a modern mechanism of its own production with automatic winding. The stars of the assortment are models dedicated to Russian ballet, the Soviet avant-garde, space exploration, brave pilots and sailors. Raketa purposefully revives images with great export and tourism potential, which sell well both on the foreign and domestic markets, including those who buy “the same Rocket” – grandfather clocks that work no matter what .

Celebrities are traditionally involved in the promotion. But if the classic brand ambassador is a mannequin with a watch, then at Raketa he is the creator. So, Natalia Vodyanova updated the design of the Zvezda watch, Emir Kusturica refreshed the Avangard line, soloists of the Bolshoi Theater - the Premier watch. With compressed advertising budgets, this is a skillful tactical move, so almost every collection has its own local or global designer-ambassador: these are ballet dancers, cosmonauts, and the Ilyushin aviation complex. Most of the models are limited, produced in quantities from 100 to 300 pieces, with the expectation of collectors. Some lines sometimes do not reach stores: they are sold out on pre-order. Another skillful move that has been used by all watchmakers since tsarist times is to gain a foothold as a supplier of premium watches.

Raketa also has watches with complications — the main thing that distinguishes ordinary mechanics from premium ones. The most famous complication of the plant is the “Russian Code” model, in which both the numbers and the hands behave in reverse. The second hand is made in the form of the Moon, which revolves around the Earth in an astronomically correct direction. In general, on the "Rocket" they like to change the appearance of the arrows: on the "Avangard" - this is the Lissitzky triangle, on the "Copernicus" - the celestial spheres. Another characteristic sign of Russian vintage watches is “0” instead of “12” on the dial. It first appeared in the 50s, and just like then, today "0" symbolizes the resurgent factory. All this allows the "Rocket" to go beyond the traditional field of comparison according to the classic watch criteria to an area where it has no direct competitors: it is not so important whether the factory has a model in platinum,

According to the witty remark of Manuel Emch, a Swiss consultant for Raketa, the past in Russia exists as the present. Raketa confirms this thesis in production and assortment policy, but goes even further, capturing the area of ​​the incredible: the engineer who created the Russian Code reverse mechanism has been working at the plant since 1957. This is Lyudmila Yakovlevna Voinik, who heads the production and technical department.

The mysterious soul of Russian luxury

In the eighties, every 3rd resident of Peterhof worked at the Rocket. Today it is every 805th. Nevertheless, labor dynasties survived here: Zimins, Morins, Levins, some of them worked at the cutting mill-factory under Peter. Raketa maintains this continuity and has opened an internal watchmaking school for young employees, with an average training period of three years.

David Henderson-Stewart, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Rocket, explains: “Most of all, we value people. I graduated from the Sorbonne, Oxford, and there is an opinion that if you are not a banker or a lawyer, you are not successful in life. This is a big mistake. Our watchmakers have a greater responsibility than any banker. Being a banker is very easy, being a lawyer is not so difficult. Any of us could become a banker in 6 months. And to work as a watchmaker, you need many years of training and a colossal responsibility. If the banker does his job poorly, nothing bad will happen. And if the watchmaker makes a bad detail, the watch will not work.

The Raketa is also actively implementing the Swiss experience. A few years ago, the watchmaker Xavier Girodet came here, who had previously collaborated with top Swiss manufactories: Jaeger-LeCoultre, Blancpain, Parmigiani. He is not the only one who is attracted by the mysterious Russian factory: for two years now, Raketa has been consulted by Manuel Emh, in the past - CEO of Jaquet Droz, CEO and creative director of Romain Jerome - two more celestials of the Swiss sky.

These and other foreigners were attracted by David Henderson-Stewart, who 10 years ago, together with his partner Jacques von Polier, invested in the plant. They made the Russian soul of Raketa a key value, although they transplanted it onto Swiss soil: all the trademarks of the plant are registered in Switzerland. When reviving production, the partners expected to rely on state support, which in Europe is actively provided to those who are reviving historical production. However, in the watch business, especially in Russia, everything moves slowly, and the planned plans are achieved at a much more leisurely pace. Paulier left the project last year, and David continues to lead the board of directors. He believes that Russia should have its own international luxury brand, and that is Raketa. Consultant Manuel Emh is of the same opinion.

According to both, a luxury brand is first and foremost a handmade product. At the Raketa, everything is done by hand, the way the watch manufactories in Le Locle worked 50 or 60 years ago, until robots replaced people. Each watch bears the imprint of the craftsmen, from machine operators to engineers, because Raketa is one of the few factories in the world that produces all the parts in-house within the same production. And one of the four factories in the world that does not buy, but makes a balance spring - one of the most complex parts of the mechanism. Apart from Raketa, only Swatch Group, Rolex and Seiko do this. Other manufactories are forced to buy it, mainly from the Swatch Group. By the way, this is one of the backup strategic plans of "Rocket" for earnings: to sell an important and expensive balance-spring to European manufacturers.

Raketa, which ten years ago was reluctantly taken to multi-brand stores, began to open its own points of sale in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Paris.

300 year old startup

In the near future, Raketa will develop a new item from the mandatory program of the luxury brand: models made of precious metals — and this will be implemented as a co-branding story with the Russian jewelry house. In the same year, Raketa did something that was not typical of a watch house: it opened workshops for visitors: production, washing, assembly, including traditionally secret departments where the most complex details of the movement are assembled.

It is surprising that a factory with a 300-year history, which produced 5 million items annually, is today in fact in the position of a start-up. This position allows us to take into account the mistakes and experience of European colleagues, progressively building a strong strategy.

In order to maintain demand, watch manufactories are forced to constantly release novelties, simultaneously cutting their circulation, and to increase service in order to compensate for the falling interest of collectors - world watch exhibitions clearly demonstrate this. Against this background, the actions of the "Rocket", drawing inspiration from the past and wrapping it in small print runs, look like a good strategy. At the same time, Raketa does not play in the field of premium watches, where it has a weak position (it balances between the Russian middle market and the European luxury market), but in the field of premium accessories with a vintage character inherent in “mysterious Russia”.

At the same time, the manufactory sets itself the goal of producing the most accurate mechanism in the world. A few days before the publication, the plant received the results of tests that were carried out among pilots of aircraft bombers. Thus, the Tissot watch has a deviation of 2.8 s, and that of the Raketa is 1.2 s after the watch has overcome supersonic sound three times.

The first batch of Raketa watches was published in 1961. The brand was named after Gagarin's flight , but in Western Europe and America, the name was more associated with Soviet missile weapons.

The Petrodvorets Watch Factory created a single mechanism for all Raketa-2609NA watch models, on the basis of which more than two dozen modifications of Raketa watches were produced: automatic, calendar, anti-magnetic, for the blind (2610NA), with a 24-hour scale (2623.N) - for people working in difficult conditions, where it is difficult to distinguish day from night: polar explorers, submariners, etc.

The first watches under the brand name "Rocket" were the models "Russia", "Record", "Petrodvorets". The Record watch was the second original design, at 2.7 mm thick, and remains the flattest of all made in the USSR and the thinnest mechanical watch in the world with a second hand. In 1965, the Record watch received a gold medal at the international Leipzig Fair .

Mass production of Raketa watches began in 1964 , and by 1980 the factory was producing 4,600,000 Raketa watches annually.

In 2000, the head of the Petrodvorets watch factory "Rocket" Oleg Grigoryevich Tychkin, who led the factory from the 1960s to the early 1990s, died. With the deterioration of the economic situation after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the company had to drastically reduce the number of products produced. Some of the buildings and premises belonging to the plant were rented out for offices and shops, including the Raketa shopping and entertainment complex. However, despite all the changes that have taken place, the employees of the Watch Factory managed to maintain production and unique equipment. The plant continued to produce watches on special orders, thanks to which it was able to maintain its own production.

Since 2010, the Board of Directors has included Rostislav Rostislavovich Romanov , one of the heads of the Romanov Imperial House. He was also the chief designer of the plant.

In 2010, model Natalia Vodianova joined the Rocket commercial . This is the first Russian brand she works with. In 2011 and 2012, the Raketa watch was presented at the Baselworld exhibition.

Clock in Detsky Mir department store, Moscow

In 2014, Raketa began creating monumental clocks for the Central Children's Store on Lubyanka in Moscow. The clock will enter the top 5 world mechanical clocks such as Big Ben, Kremlin Chimes, Prague Tower clock and Ganzhou clock. The device, located in the atrium of the Central Children's Store on Lubyanka, was installed in December 2014.

«Зени́т» — торговое название фотоаппаратуры, главным образом, однообъективных зеркальных фотоаппаратов, производившейся в 1952—2005 годах Красногорским механическим заводом им. Зверева (КМЗ) в городе Красногорске Московской области и с 1973 (1975?) года — Оптико-механическим заводом (ныне Вилейский завод «Зенит») в городе Вилейка (БССР) Белорусского оптико-механического объединения (БелОМО). Товарный знак «Зенит» принадлежит КМЗ.[1][2]. Аппаратура этого типа продавалась в СССР, а также экспортировалась «Машприборинторгом» в 74 страны мира[3]. Поэтому марка «Зенит» считается самым известным в мире названием советских фотоаппаратов.

На протяжении всей своей истории фотоаппараты с маркой Красногорского механического завода (КМЗ) шли на экспорт не только в развивающиеся страны, но и в Германию, Италию, Австрию, Францию и Англию, где успешно конкурировали с западной продукцией. «Зениты» серии «Е» стали самыми массовыми зеркальными камерами в мире: всего их различных модификаций было произведено около пятнадцати миллионов. Фотоаппараты «Зенит» нередко становились лауреатами престижных премий и удостаивались восторженных откликов со стороны общественности, средств массовой информации и экспертов области. Так, например, в 1979 году популярный английский журнал для фотолюбителей «What camera?» признал «Зенит-ЕМ» лучшим аппаратом года. А все началось сразу после окончания Второй мировой войны, когда Красногорский механический завод получил задание по выпуску мирной продукции: проекционные аппараты для государственной библиотеки им. В.И.Ленина, театральные бинокли и, наконец, фотоаппараты. В 1947 году на КМЗ была заложена производственная база для изготовления фотоаппаратуры и научных приборов. Спустя год были выпущены первые пятьдесят аппаратов «Зоркий», которые получили большую популярность и стали прообразом серии «Зенит». История же непосредственно фотоаппаратов «Зенит» началась в 1952 году, когда дальнейшие эксперименты и конструкторские разработки модели «Зоркий» привели к появлению нового зеркального малоформатного фотоаппарата. В 1955 году был выпущен первый по настоящему массовый аппарат семейства «Зенит» - «Зенит-С», который приобрел улучшенный затвор и синхроконтакт.

«Зенит» и «Зенит-С» имели зеркало, которое опускалось только при взводе затвора, таким образом, кадр в видоискателе был виден только при взведенном затворе. Так как оставлять затвор во взведенном состоянии было довольно вредно для его пружин, то на ранних «Зенитах» четко действовало правило, известное каждому их владельцу: Взвел затвор – снимай. После того, как были разработаны и поставлены на поточное производство высококачественные дальномерные камеры типа «Зоркий-3» и «Зоркий-4», не уступавшие мировым аналогам, на Красногорском механическом заводе решили создать и новый «Зенит». При этом изначально он получил название «Кристалл».

Этот фотоаппарат имел сверхточный и сверхпрочный корпус из алюминиевого сплава, представлявший собой одну-единственную деталь, что опередило мировой уровень развития зеркальных фотоаппаратов на много лет вперед. Кроме того, литой стала и верхняя крышка аппарата, причем литой с очень толстыми стенками. В 1962 году фотоаппарат стал называться уже «Зенит-3М»: отличие от «Кристалла» было только в оформлении верхней крышки, которая перестала быть такой монументальной.

«Зениты» третьего семейства стали первыми «миллионниками» в советской фотопромышленности и также первыми пошли в массовый экспорт. В этот же период в Германии для массового выпуска была заказана автоматическая линия станков, позволяющая производить высокоточную обработку корпусов, что стало технологической основой для производства фотоаппаратов на КМЗ вплоть до конца 90-х годов. На смену успешному третьему семейству аппаратов пришел внешне громоздкий, крупный и тяжелый «Зенит-4».

У него были свои достоинства – это достаточный для середины 1960-х диапазон выдержек, а главное, то, чего нет на многих современных камерах - синхронизация на любой скорости затвора с любыми вспышками. Кроме того, «Зенит-4» впервые получил встроенный экспонометр и видоискатель. Работа экспонометра была возможна без ограничений как с призмой, так и с удобной шахтой с лупой для точной наводки. Видоискатель стал огромным плюсом этой камеры, однако, был один существенный недостаток - задержка между нажатием на спуск и срабатыванием затвора, которая по сути напрочь убивала все то хорошее, что было в этом аппарате. Пятое семейство фотоаппаратов «Зенит» стало настоящим прорывом в советской и западной фотопромышленности. Дело в том, что в «Зените-5» впервые в мире среди серийных массовых камер общего назначения появился встроенный электропривод.

Питался он от формально несменной аккумуляторной батареи, но набранной из обычных аккумуляторов типа «Д» (которые можно было заменять по мере выхода из строя), протягивал пленку со скоростью около 1-1,5 кадра в секунду и подзаряжался от сети 127 или 220 вольт при помощи зарядного устройства, продававшегося в комплекте. В остальных компонентах камера не отличалась от своего предшественника «Зенита-4». Следующее поколение аппаратов – «Зенит-6» - отличалось значительным упрощением и ограниченными возможностями.

В частности, камера не была оснащена экспонометром. Камера под названием «Зенит-66», выпущенная в это же время, отличалась от «Зенита-3М» только возвратным зеркалом, которое давало возможность видеть кадр в видоискателе до взвода и сразу после спуска затвора.

Вышеперечисленные аппараты «Зенит» пятого и шестого семейства постигла одна и та же судьба – быстрое забвение. Дело в том, что на смену им пришел новый аппарат «Зенит-Е», который стал настоящей классикой. Собственно говоря, когда мы говорим фотоаппарат «Зенит», чаще всего вспоминаются именно неприхотливые, надежные и долговечные камеры «Зенит-Е», разошедшиеся по миру десятками миллионов штук.

«Зенит-Е» вобрал в себя все лучшее от своих предшественников. Резьбовое крепление объектива и мягкий, прекрасно ощущающийся спуск затвора, подъемное зеркало постоянного визирования, встроенный экспонометр и другие технологические особенности стали основой успеха этих камер. Время, проходящее между нажатием на кнопку спуска и началом движения шторок затвора, у этой модели, наверное, - наименьшее среди всех «Зенитов», что позволяет снимать движение «влет», а не с задержкой в немалые доли секунды.

Фотоаппарат «Зенит-Е» имел феноменальный успех, он массово продавался как в Советском Союза, так и за рубежом. Спрос на эти камеры был такой, что в Белоруссии, в городе Вилейке, при технической помощи КМЗ было развернуто новое производство фотоаппаратов. Правда, если качество первых выпусков было на должном уровне, то в конце 1980-х - начале 1990-х годов белорусские «Зениты» начали значительно отставать от своих подмосковных собратьев. Более дешевым и простым вариантом модели «Зенит-Е» стал фотоаппарат «Зенит-В», выпускаемый с так называемым внешним экспонометром, который фотограф в случае необходимости мог купить отдельно.

В дальнейшем аппараты семейства «Зенит-Е» стали заметно устаревать, и КМЗ требовалось улучшить фотоаппарат, не удорожая его и одновременно не ломая с трудом налаженное массовое производство. Поэтому все технологические новинки были достаточно скромными. Так появились аппараты «Зенит-ЕМ» и «Зенит-БМ», которые отличались прыгающей или, как у нас говорили, «моргающей» диафрагмой.

Вследствие этого оперативность работы с объективами, снабженными механизмом такой диафрагмы (индекс «М»), резко повысилась. Вторым дополнением стал фокусировочный экран, который получил в центре микропризмы, значительно облегчившие точную наводку на резкость. В новом семействе «Зенитов» под названием «TTL»/«12» были введены изменения в конструкцию затвора, повысившие точность отработки выдержек и равномерность хода шторок. Необходимость в этом новшестве была связана с тем, что постепенно в стране развивалась цветная фотография, и эти вопросы становились жизненно важными, особенно при съемке на слайды. Самым долгоживущим из аппаратов этой серии в производстве на Красногорском механическом заводе стал «Зенит-11»: последние такие камеры были собраны на КМЗ аж в 1992 году. Этот фотоаппарат выпускался в течение одиннадцати лет и хорошо зарекомендовал себя в эксплуатации. Существовали и другие модификации аппаратов «Зенит», которые обладали как своими технологическими новшествами, так и существенными недостатками. Некоторые из них, как, например аппарат «Зенит-18», были вскоре сняты с производства из-за конструктивных недоработок. Аппараты «Зенит» стали настоящей гордостью и ярким достижением советской фотопромышленности. Родившиеся в 50 - 60-е годы камеры «Зенит» прожили долгую жизнь и даже пережили свою эпоху. И сегодня многие любители фотографии не отказываются от своих «Зенитов», несмотря на появление современных, более молодых и точных автоматических аппаратов. На эти камеры запечатлены счастливые моменты из жизни миллионов людей по всему миру. «Зенит» вошел в историю как самый массовый зеркальный фотоаппарат XX века!