Андрей Кирионенко

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator. It first started up on 10 September 2008, and remains the latest addition to CERN’s accelerator complex. The LHC consists of a 27-kilometre ring of superconducting magnets with a number of accelerating structures to boost the energy of the particles along the way.

Inside the accelerator, two high-energy particle beams travel at close to the speed of light before they are made to collide. The beams travel in opposite directions in separate beam pipes – two tubes kept at ultrahigh vacuum. They are guided around the accelerator ring by a strong magnetic field maintained by superconducting electromagnets. The electromagnets are built from coils of special electric cable that operates in a superconducting state, efficiently conducting electricity without resistance or loss of energy. This requires chilling the magnets to ‑271.3°C – a temperature colder than outer space. For this reason, much of the accelerator is connected to a distribution system of liquid helium, which cools the magnets, as well as to other supply services.

Thousands of magnets of different varieties and sizes are used to direct the beams around the accelerator. These include 1232 dipole magnets 15 metres in length which bend the beams, and 392 quadrupole magnets, each 5–7 metres long, which focus the beams. Just prior to collision, another type of magnet is used to "squeeze" the particles closer together to increase the chances of collisions. The particles are so tiny that the task of making them collide is akin to firing two needles 10 kilometres apart with such precision that they meet halfway.All the controls for the accelerator, its services and technical infrastructure are housed under one roof at the CERN Control Centre. From here, the beams inside the LHC are made to collide at four locations around the accelerator ring, corresponding to the positions of four particle detectors – ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.

Biography

Radishchev spent his childhood on his father's estate in the village of Nemtsovo, Borovsk uyezd, Kaluga province. Radishchev's initial education seems to have been directly attended by his father, a devout man, who had a good command of Latin, Polish, French, and German. As was the custom at the time, the child was taught Russian literacy by the Book of Hours and the Psalter. By his six years, a French teacher was assigned to him, but the choice turned out to be unfortunate: the teacher, as he was later learned, was a runaway soldier. Soon after opening of the Moscow university, approximately in 1756 Alexander's father took him to Moscow, to the house of his maternal uncle (whose brother A.M. Argamakov was a director of the university in 1755-1757). Here Radishchev was entrusted to the care of a very good French governess, a former adviser to the Rouen parliament who had fled from the persecution of Louis XV's government. The Argamakovs' children had an opportunity to study at home with professors and lecturers of the university gymnasium, so one cannot exclude that Alexander Radischev was trained here under their guidance and passed, at least partially, the program of the gymnasium course.

In 1762, after the coronation of Catherine II, Radishchev was granted a knighthood and sent to St. Petersburg to study in the Corps of Pages. The Corps of Pages trained not scholars, but courtiers, and pageboys were obliged to serve the empress at balls and in the theater.

Four years later, among the twelve young nobles, he was sent to Germany, to the University of Leipzig to study law. During the time he spent there, Radishchev immensely broadened his horizons. In addition to a thorough academic school, he perceived the ideas of the leading French Enlighteners, whose works to a great extent prepared the ground for the bursting twenty years later of the bourgeois revolution.

Of Radishchev's comrades, Fyodor Vasilievich Ushakov is especially remarkable for the great influence he had on Radishchev, who wrote his "Life" and printed some of Ushakov's works. Ushakov was a more experienced and mature man than his other companions, who immediately recognized his authority. He was an example to other students, guided their reading, instilled in them strong moral convictions. Ushakov's health had been upset even before his trip abroad, and in Leipzig he still spoiled it, partly by poor nutrition, partly by excessive study, and became ill. When the doctor announced to him that "tomorrow he would have no more life," he met his death sentence firmly. He bade farewell to his friends, then, calling Radishchev alone, put all his papers at his disposal and told him, "remember that it is necessary to have rules in life, so as to be blessed." Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev's last words "marked an indelible line in his memory".

Service in St. Petersburg

In 1771 Radishchev returned to St. Petersburg and soon entered the service as a protocol officer with the rank of Titular Counselor. He did not serve long in the Senate: the comradeship of clerks and rude treatment of superiors weighed him down. Radishchev joined the staff commanding in St. Petersburg General-in-Chief Bruce as chief auditor, and stood out for his conscientious and courageous attitude to their responsibilities. In 1775 he retired and married the sister of his friend in Leipzig, Anna Vasilievna Rubanovskaya, and two years later he entered the service of the Commerce Board, which was in charge of trade and industry. There he became very close friends with Count Vorontsov, who later helped Radishchev in every way during his exile to Siberia.

From 1780 he worked at the St. Petersburg customs, having risen to the position of chief by 1790. From 1775 to June 30, 1790 he lived in St. Petersburg at Gryaznaya Street, 14 (now Marata Street).

Literary and publishing activities

The foundations of Radishchev's worldview were laid in the earliest period of his activity. Returning to St. Petersburg in 1771, a couple of months later he sent to the editors of the journal "Painter" an excerpt from his future book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", where it was published anonymously. Two years later Radishchev's translation of Mabli's Reflections on Greek History was published. Other works by the writer, such as "Officer's Exercises" and "Diary of One Week", also belong to this period.

In the 1780s Radishchev worked on his "Journey" and wrote other works in prose and verse. To this time belongs a huge social upsurge across Europe. The victory of the American Revolution and the French Revolution that followed it created a favorable climate for the promotion of ideas of freedom, which Radischev took advantage of. In 1781-1783 he wrote the ode "Liberty", a response to the victory of the American Revolution, then partially included in his "Journey from Petersburg to Moscow". In 1789 he joined the Society of Friends of the Word Sciences, and was a major influence on it. In the same year he published an article "Conversation on what is a son of the Fatherland" (in the journal "The Conversational Citizen") and a pamphlet "The Life of Fyodor Vasilievich Ushakov" (anonymous), dedicated to a friend of his youth[7].

In 1789 he established a printing house, and in May 1790 printed his main work, "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow".

Arrest and Exile 1790-1796.

The book began to sell out quickly. His bold arguments about serfdom and other sad phenomena of public and state life at that time drew the attention of the empress herself, to whom someone delivered the Journey and who called Radishchev "a rebel, worse than Pugachev. A copy of the book, which reached Catherine's desk, was preserved and she peppered it with her cynical remarks. Where the tragic scene of the sale of serfs at auction is described, the Empress deigned to write: "A sad tale of a family sold under the hammer for the debts of the lord begins."[9][10] [9] In another place of Radischev's work, where he tells about a landowner killed during the Pugachev revolt by his peasants for the fact that "every night his messengers brought to him a sacrifice of dishonor that which he had appointed that day, it was known in the village that he had put to death 60 maidens, depriving them of their chastity", the Empress herself wrote - "hardly a histories of Alexander Vasilievich Saltykov"[11].

Radishchev was arrested; his case was reassigned to S. I. Sheshkovsky. Put in a fortress, during interrogations Radischev led a line of defense. He did not mention any name of his assistants, he saved his children, and also tried to save his own life. The Criminal Chamber applied to Radishchev the articles of the Code on "attempt on the sovereign's health", on "conspiracy and treason" and sentenced him to death. The sentence, passed to the Senate and then to the Council, was approved in both instances and submitted to Catherine.

On September 4, 1790 the decree was signed,[12] which found Radischev guilty of breaking his oath and the post of a citizen, by publishing the book "full of the most false opinions, destroying the peace of the society, belittling the respect due to the government, tending to make the people resentful against the heads and commanders, and finally with offensive and violent expressions against the dignity and power of the tsar"; Radishchev's guilt is such that he fully deserves the death penalty, to which he was sentenced by the court, but "for mercy and universal joy" his execution was replaced by a ten-year exile to Siberia, to Ilimsky burg (Irkutsk province). But after Catherine's death the writer was pardoned. Radishchev stayed in the places of confinement for 6 years. On the order to exile Radischev the empress in her own hand wrote: "goes to mourn the pitiable fate of the peasant state, although it is undeniable that our peasants have no better fate good landlord in the entire universe."[11]

The treatise "On Man, His Mortality and Immortality" created by Radischev in exile contains numerous paraphrases of Herder's works "On the Origin of Language" and "On Perception and Feeling of the Human Soul"[13].

The Emperor Paul I soon after his accession (1796) returned Radishchev from Siberia. Radishchev was ordered to live on his estate in Kaluga province, the village of Nemtsov.

The last years

Monument to A. N. Radishchev on the Literators' Pavements in St. Petersburg

After the accession of Alexander I, Radishchev was given absolute freedom; he was summoned to St. Petersburg and appointed a member of the Commission for drafting laws. Together with his friend and patron Vorontsov he worked on a constitutional project entitled "Gracious Letters Patent".

There is a legend about the circumstances of Radishchev's suicide: called to the commission to draw up laws, Radishchev drafted a liberal code, in which he spoke of the equality of all before the law, freedom of the press, etc. Chairman of the commission Count P. V. Zavadovsky gave him a stern indictment for his way of thinking, harshly reminding him of his former hobbies and even mentioning Siberia ("Eh, Alexander Nikolaevich, do you still feel like idle talk, or is Siberia not enough for you?"). Radishchev, a man in poor health, was so shaken by Zavadovsky's reprimand and threats, that he decided to commit suicide: he drank poison and died in terrible agony. The inconclusiveness of this version is obvious: Radischev was buried in the cemetery near the church according to the Orthodox rite with a priest, suicides at the time were buried in special places outside the fence of the cemetery.

The book "Radischev" by D. S. Babkin, published in 1966, offers a different version of Radischev's death. His sons, who were present at his death, testified of a heavy physical ailment, which stroke Alexander Nikolaevich already during the Siberian exile. The immediate cause of his death, according to Babkin, was an accident: Radishchev accidentally drank a glass with imperial vodka, "prepared in it for burning his eldest son's old officer's epaulettes. The burial documents state a natural death. In the register of the church Volkovsky cemetery in St. Petersburg under 13 September 1802 among the buried indicated "collegiate counselor Alexander Radishchev, fifty-three years old, died of consumption" at the removal was a priest Vasily Nalimov.

Radishchev's grave has not yet been preserved. It is assumed that his body was buried near the Church of the Resurrection, on the wall which in 1987 was installed a memorial plaque[15].

Star Atlas is a next-gen gaming metaverse emerging from the confluence of state of the art blockchain, real-time graphics, multiplayer video game, and decentralized financial technologies.

Real-time graphics technology using Unreal Engine 5’s Nanite allows for cinematic quality video game visuals. Blockchain technology using the Solana protocol established a largely serverless and secured gameplay experience. Non-fungible tokens obtained and traded within Star Atlas creates an economy that replicates the tangibility of real world assets and ownership.

What Is Balancer (BAL)?

Balancer is an automated market maker (AMM) that was developed on the Ethereum blockchain and launched in March 2020. It was able to raise a $3M seed round by Placeholder and Accomplice. Balancer protocol functions as a self-balancing weighted portfolio, price sensor and liquidity provider. It allows users to earn profits through its recently introduced token ($BAL) by contributing to customizable liquidity pools.

To learn more about this project, check out our deep dive of [Balancer](https://coinmarketcap.com/alexandria/article/what-is-balancer.

The protocol operates a few types of pools:

Private pools give the owner governance over the pool, and make the person the sole contributor of liquidity to the pool. Also, all the parameters are mutable by the owner.

Shared pools are for those who want to become liquidity providers (LPs). The LPs are rewarded with the Balancer Pool Tokens (BPTs).

Smart pools are similar to private pools but are controlled by a smart contract. They also reward using BPTs and allow anyone to contribute liquidity to the pool.

Who Are the Founders of Balancer?

Balancer Lab was founded by Fernando Martinelli and Mike McDonald, but it began as a research program at a software firm “BlockScience” in 2018. The Balancer project features intelligent, like-minded fellows with an acute understanding of the DeFi space.

Fernando Martnelli, a serial entrepreneur and Maker community member, has many years of work experience outside of Balancer. He co-founded many other companies before he started Balancer with his partner, Mike McDonald.

Mike McDonald is the co-founder and CTO at Balancer. He is a security engineer and the creator of mkr.tools He joined Fernando Martnelli to build the Balancer platform.

Kristen Stone, COO at Balancer, has worked in the crypto industry for over five years. She was a product manager at Coinbase and has built teams in product and engineering.

Timur Badretdinov, is the frontend developer and has worked on several projects before working at Balancer. He founded a company called “Longcaller,” a platform focused on providing cryptocurrency reviews and educational blockchain content.

What Makes Balancer Unique?

Balancer is similar to Uniswap and Curve, in that it enables anyone to create pools of tokens. The pool adjusts itself to keep the tokens equally weighted regardless of changes in their price. However, one unique feature of Balancer is that more than one token can be added and ETH isn’t required.

Although, Balancer isn’t the first DeFi protocol to make use of AMMs, however, it has brought a new face and approach to liquidity. The unique feature of the protocol is that it allows Liquidity providers to have up to eight assets per market which are weighted by percentage and rebalanced automatically.

With Balancer, users don’t have to deposit 50% of the desired asset, but are allowed to decide how much of a supported asset they wish to deposit. Another unique feature of Balancer Lab is that users can make a high return on assets that are in low demand through arbitrage opportunities and slippage-reduction. You can learn more about how Balancer works here.

How Many Balancer Tokens (BAL) Are There in Circulation?

Balancer wasn’t launched with a native token. However, in June 2020, they launched a governance token, $BAL, following the success of Compound’s token COMP. The purpose of the token is to allow for more decentralization and as an incentive for LP.

Of the total 100M tokens that were created, 25M were reserved for the team, core developers, investors and advisors. 5M tokens were allocated for the Balancer Ecosystem Fund, which would be used as incentives for strategic partners. Another 5M were allocated for the fundraising fund. This fund will be used by Balancer to support its operation and growth at future fundraisings.

The remaining tokens are to be mined by liquidity providers on the platform and are released at a rate of 145K per week. Provided the distribution rate is kept constant, it would take approx. 8.6 years to finish distributing the tokens.

How Is the Balancer Network Secured?

For Balancer, security is a top priority and that is why the protocol has been fully audited three times by Trail of Bits, ConsenSys and OpenZeppelin. There are no admin keys or backdoors, hence, making it trustless, and the balancer pools are not upgradeable. Balancer does not support tokens that do not conform to the ERC-20 standard, even though they may be in use on some pools.

The tokens held on Balancer pools are not controlled by Balancer, but are smart contracts. Nevertheless, that does not remove the inherent risks of smart contracts. The configurable rights pools (CRPs) ensure that tokens with known issues are barred from being used in pools. It further ensures that all other tokens safely interact with the protocol

Where Can You Buy Balancer Token (BAL)?

Balancer allows users to add to liquidity pools to earn $BAL, which is automatically awarded to the users weekly. Top exchanges that support $BAL include Binance, ZenGo, Global, HBTC, Kraken, OKEx, Huobi, etc. To learn how to exchange your fiat currencies for $BAL, here is a detailed guide on how to go about that.