Mars T.

The municipality's name comes from the extensive plain that occupies the southern part of the municipality which extends towards the west to San German and Hormigueros, better known as the Sabana Grande Valley (Spanish for the big savanna valley; the word sabana and the English savanna both come from the Taino word for plains). According to historian Mario Villar Roces, before 1808 there was a community with its own church on the land today known as Sabana Grande Arriba (literally upper great savanna). Evidence of this is the oldest baptismal registry preserved from the area, as Sabana Grande was originally a sector of the municipality of San Germán.

Because the community was so far from the center of San Germán, residents felt a need to build a church, which was established as an auxiliary to the San Germán parish. The church was built and was devoted to San Isidro Labrador and Santa María de la Cabeza.

During Spanish rule, in order for a town to be established, the following had to take place: A group of vecinos ("neighbors" or residents) that wanted to found a town had to grant a power of attorney to one or more other vecinos to represent them before the governor and viceroy. This person could authorize the founding of the town and the establishment of a parish. The grantors of the power of attorney had to be a majority in the given territory and more than ten in number. Once the case had been made, the governor appointed a "capitán poblador" or settlement official to represent the vecinos and one or more delegates, who usually lived in nearby aldeas, or hamlets. Proof was required that the settlement was so far from a church that it was very difficult for the settlers to partake of sacraments and municipal services. In general, proof was provided of the absence or bad condition of roads and bridges. If the petition was approved, it was required that the vecinos mark off the new municipality and build public works such as a church, a parish house, a government house (Casa del Rey), a slaughterhouse, and a cemetery, and to set aside land for the town square or plaza and the commons (ejidos). The vecinos were expected to cover the cost of building these works by levying special assessments. Usually one of the land owners donated some land for the founding. Once the requirements had been met, the governor authorized the founding of the town and the parish, and he appointed a Lieutenant at War who usually was the same capitán poblador.

There is some debate as to when Sabana Grande was founded. Some say that it was established in 1808, while others say it was established in 1813, a year after the town was politically established in 1812. Historian Villar Roces posits that although the exact date of the founding of the town is not found in any document in the municipal archives, 1813 should be considered the year it was legally founded because it coincides with the date of the first registry document. In entry number 23 in the third book of marriages, dated July 1, 1813, the priest is identified as "Priest Ecónomo of the Sabana Grande Parish Church," while previous entries were called "Attending Priests" or "Coadjutants of the Villa of San Germán."

Sabana Grande became an independent parish, under its own jurisdiction, in June 1813, with the first parish priest of the San Isidro Labrador y Santa María de la Cabeza Church being Martín Antonio Borreli.

On December 21, 1814, the first captain general of Sabana Grande, Pedro de Acosta, took office. Some local historians assert that he donated seventy cuerdas of land where the Kings House, priests house, a plaza, a butcher shop and a cemetery were established. Others say that this land was donated by Joaquín P. Rodríguez de la Seda y Almodóvar. Villar Roces adds that Juan Francisco de Acosta, brother of the mayor and parish priest of Sabana Grande, donated his house to the town so it could be used as the Kings House or council house.

The first families of Sabana Grande were the Vélez Borrero, García Almodóvar, Nazario de Figueroa, Acosta, Sanabria, Lugo, Rivera, Sepúlveda, del Toro, Montalvo, Irizarry, Borreli, Ramírez, Torres, Matos, Pabón-Dávila, Quiñones, Rodríguez de la Renta, Soltero, Segarra, Ortiz de la Renta, Ortiz de Peña, Saavedra and others. Also, Catalan families with the surnames of Busigó, Malaret and Serra, and a group of Greek immigrants with the surname Soto, all settled in the town from the time of its founding.

The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason or simply the Enlightenment) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.

• The Age of Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. Centered on the idea that reason is the primary source of authority and legitimacy, this movement advocated such ideals as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.
• There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, but the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are commonly identified as starting points. French historians usually place the period between 1715 and 1789. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) to date the end of the Enlightenment.
• The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran between particular European countries and also in both directions across the Atlantic.
• There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought. The radical Enlightenment advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. A second, more moderate variety sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith.
• Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. It brought political modernization to the West. In religion, Enlightenment era commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe.
• Historians of race, gender, and class note that Enlightenment ideals were not originally envisioned as universal in the today’s sense of the word. Although they did eventually inspire the struggles for rights of people of color, women, or the working masses, most Enlightenment thinkers did not advocate equality for all, regardless of race, gender, or class, but rather insisted that rights and freedoms were not hereditary.

• Reductionism - Several related but distinct philosophical positions regarding the connections between theories, “reducing” one idea to another, more basic one. In the sciences, its methodologies attempt to explain entire systems in terms of their individual, constituent parts and interactions.
• Scientific method - A body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge that apply empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. It has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting of systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
• Cogito ergo sum - A Latin philosophical proposition by René Descartes usually translated into English as “I think, therefore I am.” The phrase originally appeared in his Discourse on the Method. This proposition became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to form a secure foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one’s own existence served—at minimum—as proof of the reality of one’s own mind.
• Empiricism - The theory that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. It emphasizes evidence, especially data gathered through experimentation and use of the scientific method.

Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) was a Dutch chemist credited with developing the science of microbiology. He was a businessman who made his own revolutionary microscopes. He then used this technological breakthrough to make innumerable discoveries of the world that can only be seen through microscopes. He discovered single-celled organisms, bacteria and revolutionised the way science looked at the living world. Entirely self-taught, he was often criticised for being an amateur with no scientific pedigree. But, he shared his findings freely with the Royal Society, and his findings were widely accepted – leading to a whole new branch of science – microbiology.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, the Dutch Republic on 24 October 1632. He was born just four days just after Johannes Vermeer – the famous artist who was also born in Delft. After a basic education, in 1648, van Leeuwenhoek became an apprentice at a draper’s shop in Amsterdam where he stayed for six years.

In 1654, he married Barbara de Mey and returned to his hometown of Delft. He borrowed 5,000 florins and bought the house and shop – Het Gouden Hoofd – here he set up his own draper’s shop and also gained a lucrative job serving the Delft sheriffs in the city hall as a camerbewaarder. He also later gained another city job – serving as the official wine-gauger for Delft’s wine imports and taxes.

His first married life was marked with tragedy, they had five children, but only one – Maria survived childhood. His wife Barbara died in 1666 – 12 years after marriage. In 1671 he remarried Cornelia Swalmius – they had no children.

In his job working in his Draper’s shop, he wished to see the cloth fibres in greater detail. He felt the existing lenses were inadequate, and so through trial and error, he sought to develop more powerful lenses. He found that by putting a hot section of soda lime glass back into the flame, he could create a very small, but very powerful lens. This was a major technological breakthrough and meant that Van Leeuwenhoek’s microscopes were more powerful than anything else in existence. However, Van Leeuwenhoek decided to keep his method secret as it enabled him to retain a monopoly on the new biology of tiny magnification. When visitors came to his rooms, he would hide his powerful lenses and pretend he made the powerful lens just by the traditional method of grinding down the lens. Throughout his life, he made over 500 optical lenses and 25 single-lens microscopes. He made so many as each object of study required its own lens. Of those lenses which have survived some could provide magnification of 275 times, which was remarkable for that particular age. His secret of lens magnification he took to his grave. It was not until 1957, that Van Leeuwenhoek’s method for fusing glass thread was recreated independently.

In his spare time, he used his microscopes to investigate many aspects of the natural world from tiny insects to blood, water and skin. Although he never considered himself a scientist – but more of a businessman, he began corresponding with the Royal Society in London. He was introduced to the Royal Society and its president Robert Hooke, by the physician Constantijn Huygens who wrote of Van Leeuwenhoek

“[he is] a modest man, unlearned both in sciences and languages, but of his own nature exceedingly curious and industrious … always modestly submitting his experiences and conceits about them to the censure and correction of the learned.”

They responded with enthusiasm at Van Leeuwenhoek’s groundbreaking discoveries and this encouraged Van Leeuwenhoek to continue further research and sending his findings to the Royal Society.

Though only an ‘amateur’ scientist, Van Leeuwenhoek worked carefully and meticulously over many years. His hard work and attention to detail enabled unprecedented discoveries – they were discoveries that did not stem from any recent trends or developments. They were truly revolutionary in a scientific sense. For example, it was Van Leeuwenhoek who was the first to discover single-celled organisms – like the amoeba. In fact, the discovery was so unexpected the Royal Society struggled to believe this discovery which overturned their previous understanding. Van Leeuwenhoek preferred to work alone and he only wrote in his local Dutch – never publishing a paper in Latin. Therefore, despite his interesting results, there was scepticism over some of his findings. To ascertain the reliability of these new findings, the Royal Society sent six observers to view van Leeuwenhoek’s work. This enabled the Royal Society to accept the new discoveries and this had ramifications for the understanding of science. Van Leeuwenhoek was elected to the Royal Society in 1680 – which proved a great surprise.

Van Leeuwenhoek was a religious man following a Calvinist Protestant Church. He saw his work on the beauty and majesty of the small as confirmation of God’s power and grace.

“Once more we see here the unconceivable Providence, perfection, and order bestowed by the Lord Creator of the Universe upon such little creatures which escape our bare eye, in order that their kind shouldn’t die out.”

He made many powerful discoveries about bacteria and cells, postulating there were many billions if not trillions with humans and water. When his seemingly ‘far-fetched’ claims were disputed, he defended his position based on his careful observations. He was aware of the work of Galileo and how the idea that the earth revolved around the sun was treated with disbelief for a long time.

“Whereas I suffer many contradictions, and oft-times hear it said that I do but tell fairy-tales about the little animals, and that there are people in France who do not scruple to say that those are not living creatures which I exhibit, … I make bold to say, that people who say such things have not yet advanced so far as to be able to carry out good observations.” – Van Leeuwenhoek letter to Robert Hooke November 12, 1680

Van Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries of microorganisms convinced him that the current theory of spontaneous generation of lower life forms was wrong. Van Leeuwenhoek was able to show that fleas were created by reproduction – just like larger organisms. Van Leeuwenhoek claimed he was motivated by a desire for knowledge. In a letter of June 12, 1716, he wrote

“My work, which I’ve done for a long time, was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men.”

Though an ‘amateur scientist’ his experiments and observations were based on the scientific principles of observation, repeatable experiments and sharing of findings with peers for their criticism. In many ways, Van Leeuwenhoek was ahead of his time. It would take two centuries for his initial findings on bacteria and protozoa to find its way into germ-theory – through the works of Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister, and Robert Koch.

But, the importance of Van Leeuwenhoek’s work was opening up this world of microbiology with all its new potentials for understanding the world. Some of his major discoveries and observations included:

• Infusoria – tiny aquatic creates such as ciliates, euglenoids, protozoa and algae.
• Bacteria
• The vacuole of cells (storage areas in cells)
• Spermatozoa
• White blood cells/red blood cells.
• The pattern of muscular fibres

Van Leeuwenhoek lived for 90 years, which was rare for the seventeenth century. During his later years, he was visited by many prominent people of the age, including Peter the Great and the Queen of England. He played a key role in the development of modern science. A figure of both the late Scientific Renaissance and the modern Age of Enlightenment.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) Italian renaissance polymath, thinker, artists and philosopher. Seeking after perfection, he created rare masterpieces of art such as ‘The Mona Lisa’ and The Last Supper.’

In addition to art, Da Vinci studied all aspects of life from anatomy to mathematics and astronomy; his far-reaching investigations and discoveries sought to show an underlying unity of the universe. Da Vinci is considered to be a key person in the birth of the European Renaissance, which saw an emergence of new ideas, scientific discoveries and the creation of beautiful art.

Leonardo was born an illegitimate son of a Florentine noble and peasant woman; he grew up in Vinci, Italy. In his formative years, he developed a love of nature and from an early age began to display his remarkable academic and artistic talents.

In 1466, he moved to Florence where he entered the workshop of Verrocchio. Initially, his formative style reflected his teacher but he soon developed an artistic sense which went far beyond his master’s rigid style. His first work of significance was the “Adoration of the Magi” commissioned by monks of San Donato a Scopeto. Although unfinished, the work was a masterpiece and introduced several new ideas. In particular, he introduced themes of movement and drama. He also pioneered the use of Chiaroscuro; this is the technique of defining forms through the contrast of light and shadow. This would be later used to great effect in the Mona Lisa.

“Shadow is the means by which bodies display their form. The forms of bodies could not be understood in detail but for shadow.” The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (Richter, 1888)

In 1482, Leonardo went to the court of Ludovico Sforza in Milan, where he stayed for 16 years. Here he continued painting and also branched out into other interest such as engineering and anatomy. During this period he painted the famous artworks “Madonna on the Rocks” and also “The Last Supper.”

The Last Supper has been described as one of the greatest religious paintings. With Christ at the centre of the picture, it embodies great feeling and emotion as Christ is about to announce his imminent betrayal by Judas. The painting is held at the Convent of Santa Maria Delle Grazie, Milan, but unfortunately over time the quality of the original painting has deteriorated, despite frequent restoration attempts.

In 1499, his patron L. Sforza was defeated by the French invasion, causing Leonardo to return to Florence. During this period, he painted the fresco of the Battle of Anghiari. This artwork was to exert tremendous influence over future artists. However, it was never completed and was later destroyed. It was also during this period that Leonardo completed The Mona Lisa. The Mona Lisa is one of the world’s most famous and intriguing pictures. The Mona Lisa is a portrait of a wife of a Florentine noble. For several days she came to Leonardo and sat for her portrait to be painted; however, she refused to smile. Leonardo even tried hiring musicians but to no avail. One day, just for a fleeting second, she gave a faint smile, and Leonardo was able to capture it. Her smile encapsulates a mysteriousness which is both fascinating and intriguing. Sri Chinmoy said of the Mona Lisa.

“That smile has immortalized her, immortalized the artist and immortalized the art. Artist and art have been immortalized by just a faint smile, a smile that has an enigmatic touch. Even now a soul-touch is there, and that soul-touch has conquered the heart of the world.” (1)

In the Mona Lisa, Leonardo masters the techniques of sfumato and chiaroscuro. Sfumato enables a gradual transition between colours – allowing delicate and expressive images. In the Mona Lisa, the use of chiaroscuro is evident in the contrast between her face and the dark background.

In this period Leonardo also extended his studies into engineering, science and other subjects. There seemed to be no end to his interests. He made copious notes in his complex mirror handwriting, much of which wasn’t deciphered in his lifetime. He also drew complex models of machines; in particular, he was fascinated by flight. He used to buy birds just so that he could release and enjoy watching them fly away. Da Vinci also attempted to build a flying object himself. Machines that he drew on paper, such as helicopters, would become a reality many centuries later. If his medicinal studies had been published, it would have revolutionised the science, as he was one of the first to understand the circulation of blood within the body. He also realised the earth revolved around the sun, anticipating the future work of Copernicus and Galileo. Da Vinci was driven to contemplate all aspects of life and the world, it left him with a great love and fascination with the universe.

“Here forms, here colours, here the character of every part of the universe are concentrated to a point; and that point is so marvellous a thing … Oh! marvellous, O stupendous Necessity — by thy laws thou dost compel every effect to be the direct result of its cause, by the shortest path. These are miracles…” The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci

Through different fields, Da Vinci sought to see an underlying unity in the universe and took an optimistic view of human potential.

“Things that are separate shall be united and acquire such virtue that they will restore to man his lost memory.”

This is a drawing of the proportions of man. Da Vinci used earlier work and notes by the Roman architect Vitruvius. The picture combines art, man and science – illustrating the beauty of geometrical proportions and the human form. It is symbolic of Da Vinci’s work, and the Renaissance he inspired, to combine these art forms into one diagram. In the simplicity of a line drawing, there are many different factors brought into play; it has become an iconic image.

Da Vinci fame grew during his lifetime, though he was not a wealthy man and he had to rely on the patronage of his patrons. This included powerful men, such as Cesare Borgia, who in the early 1500s demanded Da Vinci design instruments of war. Da Vinci designed a crossbow, prototype tank and ‘machine gun.’

Leonardo remained single throughout his life. He did not marry or have children. He kept his personal life private and shared few details. He was close with his pupils Salai and Melzi, but appeared to be mostly absorbed in his far-reaching investigations, work and paintings. In his day, contemporary reports indicated Da Vinci was a unique person, with a physical beauty, dignified presence and strong moral character. Da Vinci expresses his love of truth:

“To lie is so vile, that even if it were in speaking well of godly things it would take off something from God’s grace; and Truth is so excellent, that if it praises but small things they become noble.” The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci

His first biographer, Giorgio Vasari, writes on the person of Da Vinci in 1550.

“..Besides a beauty of body never sufficiently extolled, there was an infinite grace in all his actions; and so great was his genius, and such its growth, that to whatever difficulties he turned his mind, he solved them with ease.”

A notable characteristic of Da Vinci was his wide-ranging respect and reverence for truth, life and living creatures. He adopted a vegetarian diet and would buy caged birds just so he could release them. He is quoted as saying:

“The time will come when men such as I will look upon the murder of animals as they now look upon the murder of men.”

Between 1506-1510, Leonardo spent time in Milan working on behalf of the very generous French King Lois XII. In 1513 he travelled to the Vatican, Rome where he enjoyed the patronage of the new Medici Pope, Leo X. Here, Da Vinci worked in proximity to contemporaries such as the great Masters Michelangelo and Raphael. However, an intense rivalry soon developed between the younger Michelangelo and Da Vinci.

Despite being the patron of the Pope, Da Vinci was not an orthodox Catholic. Vasari writes of Da Vinci that he was:

“cast of mind was so heretical that he did not adhere to any religion, thinking perhaps that it was better to be a philosopher than a Christian.”

Vasari removed this quote in the second edition but, from his life’s work, we can see Da Vinci valued reason and was willing to question dogma passed down through the ages. Da Vinci wrote criticisms of the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church. The religious paintings of Da Vinci also indicate a religious faith expressed in a non-conformist way. His Madonna on the Rocks incorporates a Virgin Mary, not dressed regally or surrounded with a halo, but simply dressed in the surroundings of nature. Da Vinci did believe in God, but his religious sensibilities were expressed through seeing God in art, science and nature.

“We, by our arts may be called the grandsons of God.” The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci

Da Vinci was a great perfectionist – one reason why he completed so few paintings was that he never felt he had satisfactorily finished anything. He said towards the end of his life:

“I have offended God and mankind because my work didn’t reach the quality it should have.”

In 1515, Da Vinci left to settle at the castle of Cloux, near Amboise by the kind invitation of Francis I of France. Here Da Vinci, spent his remaining years, free to pursue his own studies. He died in 1519 leaving behind one of the greatest body of artistic and scientific works.

Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily.

Archimedes was a mathematician, inventor, and astronomer who was one of the most celebrated mathematicians of all time. He was famous for getting so absorbed in his studies, that he forgot about social conventions. Famously, he is said to have realised a principle of mathematics when he saw the displaced water after getting in the bath. So excited at realising the importance of this he shouted “Eureka” and rushed out into the street unclothed. We cannot be certain this entertaining anecdote is 100% true, but he was a genuinely great mathematician, who in many ways was centuries ahead of his contemporaries. His works were later rediscovered by both Arabic and Renaissance scientists who first replicated his results and then built on them.

Archimedes was born in Syracuse, a Greek city-state in Sicily. He was educated at Alexandria, Egypt – famed for its knowledge and learning. He then returned to Syracuse where he became famed as both a mathematician, inventor, astronomer and philosopher. He continued to correspond with mathematicians back in Alexandria, and even during his lifetime, he gained a strong reputation for being a mathematical genius. Archimedes was close to the ruler of Syracuse, King Hiero II who employed Archimedes in the defence of the city against the Roman invasion.

Archimedes greatest love was theoretical mathematics. He wrote several treatises and corresponded with other mathematicians of the day. He had a brilliant mind and made many important developments in the subject. This includes a development of calculus using infinitesimals. Archimedes development of calculus remained un-improved until the 15th Century. Archimedes also developed the most accurate prediction of pie to date. Using the method of approximation, he showed pi has to be greater than 223/71 and less than 22/7. His favourite proof involved proving that the volume and surface area of a sphere was 2/3 of a cylinder of the same height and diameter.

Archimedes had an inquisitive nature and was willing to challenge conventional views. For example, it was widely considered that the number of grains of sand on the earth was infinite – or at least impossible to calculate. However, in The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes proceeded to make a calculation using a new system of counting which made use of powered numbers based on the myriad (10,000). He proposed a myriad x myriad = 100 million. Archimedes calculated the number of grains of sands to fill the universe would be eight vigintillions or 8 x 1063.

As well as mathematics, Archimedes made discoveries in the field of mechanics. Although he did not invent the lever, he made descriptions about its use, the mathematical underpinning of levers, and made practical innovations to help sailors lift heavier objects than they could on their own. Archimedes work on the lever led to one of his most famous statements

“Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.”

Archimedes was also known as an outstanding astronomer; he made observations on solstices and calculated the distance to the sun and planets through the use of Pythagorean theory.

As well as theoretical mathematics, Archimedes was asked to help deal with matters of state. For example, Archimedes was asked to prove whether a crown was made purely of gold or whether it was made up of silver. However, Archimedes wasn’t allowed to damage the crown. One account states Archimedes determined the density of the crown by measuring how much water was displaced when the crown was submerged in water and then dividing the mass of the crown by the weight of the crown. From knowing the density, Archimedes could work out whether it was pure gold. An anecdotal story of how Archimedes got the idea for this method was sitting in a bathtub of water. When he saw the water displaced, the idea came to him. Archimedes was so excited. He shouted “Eureka” – ‘I have found it’ and then took to the streets without time to put his clothes on. Unsurprisingly, this great anecdote wasn’t found in Archimedes own writings, but the legend has stuck to Archimedes.

“Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid.”

An alternative explanation for measuring the density of a crown may have been Archimedes own principle about the buoyancy of an object in a fluid. In Floating Bodies (c. 250 BC) Archimedes wrote:

“Any object, totally or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.”

The implication of this principle is that when a body is partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the immersed part of the body.

Though Archimedes great love was theoretical mathematics, King Hiero II of Syracuse employed Archimedes to build inventions for the civil benefit and military defence of the city. Archimedes was involved in constructing and possibly inventing the Archimedes screw, which is able to lift liquid and solids uphill against the force of gravity. It was an important device which could lift water from low-lying lands to higher lands.

During the Second Punic War, the city was under siege from the Romans and General Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Archimedes invented many military defences. This included a system of mirrors deflecting the sunlight to the Roman ships – either to set them alight or blind the sailors heading to shore. Another weapon was the Claw of Archimedes – it involved a long metal hook suspended from a crane-like arm. It was used to drop on invading ships to lift them from the water and possibly sink it. He is also credited with inventing a more powerful and accurate catapult. Plutarch wrote in glowing terms about the impact Archimedes had on the defence of the city.

“When… the Romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, fear and consternation stupefied the Syracusans…. But when Archimedes began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons… that came down with incredible noise and violence… they knocked down those upon whom they fell in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files.”

The Roman General Marcellus wanted to keep alive the famous Archimedes, but Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier shortly after the city fell (in 212 BC). One anecdote suggests Archimedes was absorbed in his mathematical studies using a compass to draw circles when a Roman soldier demanded he surrendered and follow him. Archimedes replied. “Do not disturb my circles” or according to Velerius Maximus – “I beg of you, do not disturb this.’ The Roman soldier in a fit of anger killed Archimedes on the spot.

He was buried in Syracuse with a model sculpture of his sphere and cylinder. The tomb of Archimedes was later rediscovered by Cicero in about 75BC.

Archimedes was in many ways ahead of his time. Despite numerous breakthroughs in mathematics, there was not sufficient skilled and intelligent mathematicians to make use and develop Archimedes work in the classical period.

“Modern mathematics was born with Archimedes and died with him for all of two thousand years. It came to life again with Descartes and Newton.”

— Eric Temple Bell, The Development of Mathematics (1940)

Many of his works were lost or fell out of general circulation. However, some works were preserved and when they were rediscovered and re-printed, they gave a major boost to a reinvigoration of mathematics in Asia and Europe. Archimedes works were translated into Arabic in the 9th Century AD. In 1544, a version of Archimedes works in both Latin and Greek were published in Editio Princeps in Basel. This was a very influential work. Galileo was a great admirer of Archimedes and – influenced by his writings, he invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in water and air. Perhaps even more important was Archimedes influence on mathematicians Rene Descartes and Pascal Blaise. In 1906, the Archimedes Palimpsest was discovered – and, although overwritten with prayers in the 13th Century, underneath they discovered original writings of Archimedes that had been first written in the 10th Century AD. It includes original sources of On Floating Bodies and “The Method of Mechanical Theorems.”

Aristotle (384BC – 322BC) was a Greek philosopher, natural scientist and polymath, who made extensive studies into the world around us. He was widely regarded as the greatest of the ancient thinkers and his extensive studies and writings had a lasting impact on science, philosophy and an approach based on reason and logical thinking. Whilst many of his teachings have been superseded – for over a 1,000 years his writings formed an important basis of western and Islamic culture.

Aristotle was born in Stagira, Macedonia (northern Greece) around 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus was a physician. After his father’s death, he travelled to Athens to join the Academy of Plato. Some sources suggest he lived quite a boisterous and wild young life, but at the same time grew into a model student of Plato. Aristotle was not only very intelligent but had a thirst for knowledge and was always searching to push the boundaries of discovery. He had an independent mind – questioning received wisdom and looking at subjects from a new angle. He deeply impressed Plato through his ability to resolve difficult questions and previously unsolvable problems.

As Aristotle studied under Plato he would have learnt about the philosophic traditions of Socrates. He not only synthesised existing philosophy but also left his own lasting contributions in the field of logical argument, epistemology and the link between potentiality and actuality. Perhaps Aristotle’s most singular contribution was the promotion of logic and rational argument, a basic tenant that he employed in all the myriad fields of his studies.

Aristotle’s wider philosophy was also based on study of the immanent world, examining observable phenomena. Whilst this may sound quite commonplace, it was a departure from many of the ancient religious beliefs, superstitions and myths which were held up to explain many things.

In addition to his metaphysical arguments, Aristotle never lost touch with reality and was a practical philosopher offering meaningful advice to readers and students on how to promote a better and more fulfilling life. He was also regarded as a kindly man, compassionate to others.

In 342 BC Aristotle returned to Macedonia to become the teacher of the future Macedonian King – Alexander the Great. Aristotle taught the future king for several years on political philosophy, history and ethics. Alexander the Great would later ignore much of Aristotle’s teachings such as the desirability of oligarchic leadership, but, his education by Aristotle must have left an abiding impression on the young prince.

“If liberty and equality, as is thought by some, are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be best attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost.”

– Aristotle (Politics)

In 335 BC, Alexander ascended the throne and began his great wars of conquest. During this period, Aristotle returned to Athens, where he opened his own school – the Lyceum. Whilst Alexander did not seek his old tutor’s advice, he appears to have given Aristotle a generous fund to support the Lyceum and Aristotle’s work. However, Aristotle’s independence of thought did create tension with the powerful Alexander. Aristotle’s nephew was executed for suspected treason – perhaps as a warning shot to Aristotle himself. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Aristotle also suffered from his association with the former king, and anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens encouraged Aristotle to flee. Bearing in mind the fate of Socrates, he didn’t want Athens ‘to sin against philosophy for a second time.’ A few months after leaving Athens, he died at the age of sixty-two.

Aristotle was one of the great polymaths of his time. It is estimated that Aristotle wrote around 170 books, although only 47 of these have survived to the modern-day. He made studies in botany, physics, philosophy, medicine, optics, logic, and was well known for being a powerful lecturer and debater. Aristotle was also a playwright and he described how the weakness of man – pride, anger, jealousy, could lead to his downfall.

His prolific output was helped by his own researchers and his synthesising existing knowledge. But, this in itself was an important task. Much of what we know of the ancient world comes from Aristotle. In doing so, he helped lay the foundations for western civilisation.

Aristotle made a comparison of different constitutions from different states. This in itself was groundbreaking; he sought to rationally compare different systems of government to see which was the most successful. This work informed his book Politics – which was an attempt at a practical philosophy to allow justice and freedom. He also saw politics as a method of ensuring man had the capacity to live harmoniously and allow him to pursue noble ideas.

“The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.”

Aristotle made mistakes and held views on slavery and women which reflected the prejudices of his time. However, he was also a visionary – leaving many memorable phrases. In the world of politics, he said: “Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime.” He was also a very early pioneer for promoting education as a way to strengthen a nation-state.

“All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind are convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.”

In the field of physics, Aristotle’s ideas influenced much of the medieval period and lasted into the European Renaissance, when his ideas were replaced by the physics of Isaac Newton. In the study of the natural world he distinguished and classified around 500 species of animal and made an early effort to offer categorisations of the living world.

Aristotle was one of the earliest thinkers to consider issues of economics. He described the function of money and debated the virtues of private property vs communal sharing. It is a debate that would come to the fore nearly two thousand years later. Whilst supporting private property, Aristotle was more critical over retail (selling of goods for profit) and the charging of interest, which he saw as making money from not doing anything productive.

Aristotle believed in the power of reason to illuminate the problems of man. He believed that man had the capacity for enlightenment through self-inquiry and study. He believed that human goodness derived from rational thought. In this regard, he had an important legacy for scientific method and rational understanding. During the medieval ages, Aristotle was seen as a primary source of knowledge and at times, there became a rigid adherence to Aristotle’s writing. The irony is that Aristotle himself was always willing to challenge conventional wisdom. Aristotle was one of the few classical philosophers who strongly influenced later Christian writers such as Thomas Aquinas. He also exerted an important influence on Islamic scholars who tried to synthesis Islam with the rationality of Aristotle.