Marya Evansn

into production as the R32 Nissan Skyline GT-R. The P32 developed 206 kW (280 hp; 276 hp) at 6800 rpm and 260 lb-ft (353 Nm) of torque at 4,400 rpm, its curb weight was 1,430 kg (3,150 lb). Nissan officially began production on August 21, 1989, and in 1990 began a Group A campaign.

The Skyline GT-R Nismo, designated by the model code suffix "RA", was introduced on February 22, 1990 and received a premium of 235,500 yen compared to the standard car. It existed in order to make a number of changes related to performance, aerodynamics, weight savings and reliability for Group A races. These rules required the production of 500 units in accordance with special "Evolution" rules, but another 60 were produced and retained by Nissan for conversion into racing cars, resulting in a total production volume of 560 units. Aerodynamic changes include: two additional channels in the front bumper and the removal of a protective mesh mesh to improve airflow into the intercooler, a spoiler on the hood to direct more air into the engine compartment, deeper rear spans and an additional spoiler on the trunk to provide more downforce. The specification of the Nizmo removes ABS, which is not legal in Group A, and a rear wiper to save weight. The hood and front panels are made of aluminum in all GT-R models, rather than standard steel in non-GT-R models, again to save weight. Overall, the GT-R and Nismo weigh 1,400 kg (3,086 lb) compared to 1,430 kg (3,153 lb) for the standard GT-R. Bridgestone RE71 tires in 225/55R16 are mounted on 16-inch alloy wheels. Mechanically, the GT-R and Nismo uses the RB26 engine of the "standard" GT-R, but replaces the standard Garrett T03 turbochargers with the larger T04B models sacrificing a faster coil of ceramic turbo wheels to improve the reliability of steel wheels. The GT-R Nismo was only available in the KH2 "Pistol Grey Metallic" color code. Other minor but noticeable changes include the round "Nismo" logo on the right rear of the trunk, the absence of radio tuning controls on the dashboard console (since the radio was optional) and transversely drilled brake rotors. Available options under the Nismo brand and included a 260 km/h (162 mph) speedometer, a 3-inch cat back exhaust system, front suspension support, sports shock absorbers, 17-inch alloy wheels and a rear spoiler with a built-in third brake light.

Rear view of the R32 showing the distinctive four round taillights

The Skyline GT-R 'N1' model (denoted by the suffix of the model code "ZN") was introduced on July 19, 1991 and is intended for the domestic market of the H1 race, in which a total of 245 units were eventually produced (118 of them "H1", 64 - "in*special H1" and 63 - "in·special second H1" - see Below is an explanation of the "B. specifications"). The most noticeable change occurred in the engine, which was updated to the R32-N1 specification. Based on the specification of the Nismo car, it was also lightened by removing the ABS and rear wiper, but for the H1, the air conditioning, sound system and trunk mat were also removed, and distinctive light headlights were installed. The "N1" cars also had amplifiers for the main brake cylinder and additional brake cooling channels under the car. All "N1" cars were delivered with a thin layer of paint with the color code 326 "Crystal White".

To celebrate GT-R's success in both Group H and Group A races, Nissan Skyline GT-R v·Spec ("Victory Specification") was introduced on February 3, 1993. * V*added Brembo brakes and a reconfigured ATTES E-TS system. The *Spec was available in both "regular" and "H1" versions, and all cars in the *Spec used a lightweight aluminum hood and front bumpers from Nismo. The cars also replaced the standard 16-inch wheels with 17-inch BBS wheels with 225/45R17 tires.

Finally, on February 14, 1994, the Skyline GT-R V*Spec II was introduced, the only change to which were wider tires 245/45r17. The "regular" V*Spec and V*Spec II had a curb weight of 1,480 kg (3,263 lb), which is 50 kg (110 lb) more than the standard GT-R. The total production in *spec and in·spec II amounted to 1396 and 1306 units, respectively.

Production of the R32 Skyline GT-R ceased in November 1994 after the release of 43,937 units.

The most popular colors are X2 "Cannon Gray metallic" (45% of cars), followed by 326 "Crystal White" (18%), 732 "Black Pearl metallic" (13%), KL0 "Sparkling silver metallic" (12%). The rarest color is BL0 "Grayish-blue pearl", a total of 141 units.

1989 1989, the Japanese television program The Best Car conducted a test at the Nurburgring Nordschleif with the production version of the Nissan Skyline GT-R R32. Under the control of Motoharu Kurosawa, the car drove a lap in 8:22.38 minutes on a semi-wet (wet) track, which made it the fastest legal production car on the track at that time.

As of August 2014, the P32 Skyline GT-R has the right to import into the United States in accordance with the NHTSA rule "25 years", which allows the import of vehicles that are 25 years old (up to a month) or older. These vehicles, due to their age, do not have to comply with federal emission standards or federal motor vehicle safety standards.

The P32 zero-R was a special version of the tuner developed by XCS with a capacity of 441 kW (591 hp; 600 hp). 10 were produced, but only 4 survived. One was bought by the Sultan of Brunei. One of them was bought at the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show for 212,000 yen and shipped to Australia.

Production indicators

GT-R (Series 1) = 17,316

GT-R Nismo = 560

GT-R (Australia) = 100

GT-R (Series 2) = 11,187

GT-R (Series 3) = 11,827

V*Specification = 1396

V*Specification II = 1306

N1 = 245 (GT-R N1 = 118, V*Specification N1 = 64, V*Specification II N1 = 63).

Total = 43,937

The E-BCNR33 (R33) was developed before models other than the GT-R R33 went on sale in August 1993 (the prototype was shown at the 1993 Tokyo Motor Show) for release in 1995 as a successor to the R32 model. The engine in the R33 was almost identical to the R32. It used the same turbochargers and the same specifications for the manual transmission, although the syncrosses were stronger. The engine fixed the weak oil pump drive clamp R32, which usually failed when using higher power, with a wider clamp (also fixed in specification 2 R32 before the release of R33). The base model R33 GT-R weighs 1,540 kg (3,395 lb).

The R33 GT-R went on sale on January 6, 1995, along with the GT-R base model and the V·Spec model. The V*Spec model weighed 10 kg (22 lb) heavier and had a sportier suspension, which led to a decrease in ground clearance. The V* specification also included the newer ATTESA E-TS Pro all-wheel drive system, which included an active limited slip differential.

Simultaneously with the release of the R33 GT-R and GT-R V·Spec models, Nissan introduced the R33 GT-R V·Spec N1 model. The changes made to R33 N1 are similar to the changes made to R32 N1. The car became lighter by removing ABS, air conditioning, sound system, rear wiper and trunk mat. R33 GT-R V*Spec N1 received a slightly redesigned R33 N1 engine.

In 1997, Autech released a limited edition four-door GT-R sedan to celebrate the fortieth anniversary of the Skyline nameplate. While it was planned to celebrate Autech's 40th anniversary, 416 examples were eventually built.

Production of the R33 ended on November 9, 1998. The last R33 GT-R produced was the V-Spec in GV1, made in black pearl color.

Before the official release of the R33, Nissan recorded a lap time for the R33 GT-R at the Nurburgring Nordschleife, driven by Dirk Scheusmann, the car set a lap time of 7:59.887 minutes, becoming the first production and production Nissan car to break the 8-minute mark. Also the fastest production car for legal road production and the second fastest car for legal road production on the highway at that time. In 1999, the record was broken by the GT-R R34.

In 1995, Best Motoring tested the GT-R R33 at the Nurburgring in Nordschleife. Driven by Motoharu Kurosawa, the car drove a lap around the track in 8:01.72 minutes.

1995 GT-R LM

1995 Road car Nissan R33 GT-R LM at the exhibition at the headquarters of Nissan

Nissan mainly competed in Group C races with specially designed prototype racing cars after the R32 GT-R was excluded from Group A races, but rule changes for Group C forced Nissan to abandon Group C races. Nissan then started developing one of its existing cars to race in the GT1 class in the BPR racing series. The company decided to base a new GT1 car on the R33 LM race car. The car's weight was reduced to 1,150 kg (2,535 lb) and the all-wheel drive system was removed. The car has also been significantly expanded and lowered with a new bodywork to increase downforce. The car was equipped with an engine specification N1, whose power was 298 kW (405 hp; 400 hp). The engine was connected to a 6-speed sequential manual transmission manufactured by Xtrac.

Homologation rules for the GT1 class in 1995 required the creation of the equivalent of a single road. Thus, the only car running on the road was developed and preserved at the Nissan plant in Zoom. The road version of the car was tuned to 224 kW (305 hp; 300 hp) and was equipped with the same body 50 mm (2 inches) wider than the racing version. The interior remains the same as the standard R33 GT-R, albeit with an alcantara-rimmed steering wheel and racing bucket seats.

Two racing cars were built with numbers 22 and 23. They were introduced in the 1995 Leman season, but faced stiff competition from more powerful racing cars such as the Ferrari F40 LM and McLaren F1 GTR. Car number 22, driven by H. Fukuyama and S. Kasuya, qualified in the 34th season and took 5th place in its class with a total of 10th place, while number 23 dropped out after 157 laps due to gearbox damage. Due to the advent of purpose-built racing cars using loopholes in the rules, such as the Porsche 911 GT1, Nissan decided to withdraw from the 1996 season.

1996 LM Limited

Several limited editions of BCNR33 have been released. The first version of the LeMans, or "LM", was introduced in May 1996 to celebrate Nissan's participation in the 24-hour Le Mans. The only body color available for the R33 LM was Champion Blue. The car had a front splitter to direct air into the upper front opening and a carbon fiber rear wing with a hinged lid. There were carbon fiber inserts on the rear wing ribs with the GT-R badge on the inserts. The GT-R Skyline logo under the checkered flag was placed on C-shaped racks.

Nissan has produced a total of 188 units of this model, 86 GT-R LM Limited and 102 V-Spec LM Limited.

Limited series of optional accessories installed at the factory:

The champion is blue (code BT2).

The Rear Wing Blade Is Made Of Carbon Fiber.

N1 Front Brake Cooling Channels.

N1 Hood Lip.

GT-R commemorative stickers on C-shaped racks.

1997 NISMO 400R

A special edition of the R33 was introduced on November 3, 1997 under the name 400R, where R stood for Racing. The overall development and planning was carried out by NISMO (Nissan Motorsports International). But, his boring and smooth RB26DETT engine, RBX-GT2, was designed and produced by REINIK (later renamed REIMAX – "REINIK to the maximum"). The engine had a crankshaft with a stroke of 77.7 mm (73.7 mm margin), forged pistons with a diameter of 87 mm (86 mm cast margin), upgraded rods, polished holes, high-lift camshafts, an upgraded oil system

The Skyline GT-R, GT-R V·Spec and GT-R V·Spec N1 models were introduced in January 1999. The R34 GT-R was shorter (front to back) and the front overhang was reduced compared to its predecessor. The valve covers were painted glossy red (color code Cherry red effect Z24 or X1020), unlike black in previous models.

Skyline GT-R R34, driven by the character Brian O'Conner, played by Paul Walker in the movie 2 Fast and Furious 2.

A new feature of the R34 GT-R is a 5.8-inch multifunction LCD display in the center of the dashboard, which displays seven different current engine readings and vehicle statistics, such as turbocharger pressure (no more than 1.2 bar), oil and water temperature, and others. The GT-R V*Spec model has added two additional functions to the display: intake and exhaust gas temperature. Nismo Multifunction Displays (MFD) could be purchased for an additional fee, they included a lap timer, a gravity meter and an increase in the boost pressure measurement to 2 bar. The R34 GT-R was shortened in response to customer concerns that the R33 was too bulky.

Like the R33, the new R34 GT-R V*Spec (Victory specification) models are equipped with an ATTESA E-TS Pro system and an active LSD at the rear, while the standard GT-R models come with a non-Pro system and a conventional mechanical differential. The V·Spec model also had a stiffer suspension and lower ground clearance thanks to the front and side splitters, as well as a rear carbon fiber air diffuser designed to ensure a smooth flow of air under the car.

During the introduction of the R34, like the R32 and R33, Nissan introduced the R34 V·Spec N1 model. The R34 V·Spec N1 model was equipped similarly to the R32 and R33 N1 models - a special homologation. It was sold without air conditioning, audio equipment, rear wiper or trunk lining, but the ABS remained. The new R34 N1 also received a new R34 N1 engine. Only 38 known R34 V*Spec N1 models were produced at the factory, 12 of which Nismo used for Super Taikyu racing. The rest were sold to various customers, mainly racing teams and tuning garages.[citation required]

The V·Spec version was also imported to the UK with a number of modifications made on these 80 cars.They included 3 additional oil coolers, a revised ECU card, a full Connolly leather interior, bottom diffusers, a stiffer suspension, an active rear differential with limited slip, an additional display function on the car display. In addition to the UK, 10 were sold to Hong Kong and Singapore, and 5 to New Zealand, albeit with various changes for their respective markets.

Rear view of the car R34 GT-R M*spec Nür

In October 2000, Nissan introduced the V*Spec II, replacing the V*Spec. The V*Spec II has increased suspension stiffness (even stiffer than the original V·Spec) and had larger rear brake rotors. It also features a carbon fiber hood equipped with a NACA duct, which is lighter than the aluminum that all other GT-R hoods are made of. Also the difference of the V*Spec II was the iridium center console and aluminum pedals. The seats were upholstered in black fabric rather than the grey fabric used on previous R34 GT-R models, and the amber-turn lenses were replaced with white versions. With the exception of the carbon fiber hood, the standard GT-R package also received these updates. A total of 18 V*Spec II N1s were built. A total of 1,855 V*Spec II's were built for Japan, with an additional 2 sold for the New Zealand market. V*Spec N1 has been replaced by V·Spec II N1. The same changes applied to V*Spec N1 were applied to V·Spec II N1, except for the carbon hood of V·Spec II, which was now unpainted.

In May 2001 , the M specification was introduced . It was based on the V-Spec II, but had special "Ripple" shock absorbers, a revised suspension, a stiffer rear crossbar and a leather interior with heated front seats. The letter "M· in the M* specification stood for Mizuno, who is the chief engineer of Nissan. The only other change was the removal of the carbon fiber hood, which was replaced with a standard aluminum hood.

In February 2002, Nissan launched the final production model R34 GT-R called Skyline GT-R V*Spec II Nür and Skyline GT-R M·Spec Nür. Nur was named after the famous German Nurburgring racetrack, where Skyline was developed. A total of 1,003 R34 GT-R Nür(s) units were produced, 718 were V·Spec II Nür and 285 were M*Spec Nür." The Nür model featured an improved RB26DETT engine based on the N1 racing engine. The standard turbochargers were upgraded to larger versions with a slight boost increase, and the ceramic blades were replaced with steel versions. This increased the lag, but the durability of the turbo was improved, at the same time it could cope with a large boost increase. The V·Spec II Nür model is based on the regular V·Spec II model, and the M·Spec Nür model was based on the regular M·Spec model. In addition to the addition of the Nür engine, the Nür models also included a different stitching color on the interior trim, as well as speedometer readings up to 300 km/h (186 mph), gold valve caps instead of red and a gold VIN plate instead of silver. Due to Japanese automotive industry regulations at the time, the car was advertised as having 206 kW (280 hp; 276 hp), but it actually had over 246 kW (334 hp; 330 hp) when it left the factory.

In 1999, during a Nissan test session at the Nurburgring Nordscheleife. Unofficially, the GT-R R34 ran a lap on the track in 7:52 minutes under the control of Nissan test pilot Kazuo Shimizu. The car broke the GT-R R33 record, which at the time was the fastest production car for legal road traffic and the second fastest legal car on the track.

There is no consensus in historiography regarding the origins of Russian philosophy, its periodization and its cultural significance. Russian Russian philosophy's historical boundaries directly depend on the philosophical content that a particular researcher sees in Russian intellectual history. Traditionally, since the XIX century, there have been "pre-Petrine / Old Russian" and "post-Petrine / enlightenment" stages of the development of Russian philosophy. In modern historiography, the third, "Soviet" period is also distinguished. Russian Russian philosopher Archimandrite Gabriel, the first historian of Russian philosophy, saw its origins in the didactic "Teaching" of Vladimir Monomakh, thus he directly elevated Russian philosophy to the traditional Old Russian scribes. Russian Russian philosophy, however, a number of major historians tend to consider philosophy within stricter boundaries: Russian philosophy is formed as an independent phenomenon, thus, in the era of Peter the Great.

Russian Russian philosophy's reduction to the Enlightenment paradigm has been repeatedly criticized in view of the reductivization of the Russian philosophical heritage of previous eras. Russian Russian Russian Russian philosophy discussions about the origins and boundaries of Russian philosophy do not subside to this day, although in most modern historical and philosophical essays, Russian philosophy is considered as a phenomenon of Russian intellectual culture rooted in the theological and didactic literature of Ancient Russia (among the first Russian philosophers include Kliment Smolyatich, Kirik Novgorodets, Kirill Turovsky, etc.).

According to Nikolai Lossky, the characteristic features of Russian philosophy are: cosmism, sophiology (the teachings of Sophia), conciliarity, metaphysicality, religiosity, intuitionism, positivism, realism (ontologism).

Russian Russian philosophy was characterized by Semyon Frank by pointing out the inherent inseparability of the rational and moral meanings inherent in the word "truth". Nikolai Berdyaev also pointed out the characteristic desire of Russian thought "to develop a totalitarian, holistic worldview in which truth-truth will be combined with truth-justice"[1].

According to Professor A. D. Sukhov, no other philosophy contains so many reflections on the fate of his country[2].

As researcher M. N. Varlamova notes, Plato is a much more significant figure in Russia than Aristotle[3].

Prof. Nina Dmitrieva notes that "Russian philosophical thought, up to the turn of the XIX—XX centuries, developed mainly in the mainstream of literary criticism and journalism, with primary attention to topical socio-political and ethical issues. And in the last decades of the XIX century, the tone in academic and so-called free philosophy began to be increasingly set by thinkers of a mystical-religious kind"[4].

Russian Russian philosophy, as Professor, Doctor of Historical Sciences N. V. Vorobyova notes in her work "History of Russian Spiritual Culture" (Omsk, 2015), modern researchers postulate the absence of an original national Slavic-Russian philosophical system, considering the system of Russian philosophy as a phenomenon of Modern times.

Soviet Philosophy

Even before the beginning of the October Revolution, the philosophy of Marxism was developed in Russia (Georgy Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin).

The main question in Soviet philosophy was the relationship between matter and consciousness, and the main method was dialectics, in which three laws were distinguished. Structurally, philosophy was divided into dialectical and historical materialism, that is, the philosophy of nature and the philosophy of history. Nature, interpreted as matter and objective reality, was considered eternal and infinite in space and time. Consciousness was interpreted as a "property of highly organized matter".

Lenin's theory of reflection dominated the theory of knowledge. The historical process was perceived through the prism of the subordinate relationship of the basis (economy) and the superstructure (culture), which passed through successive formations: the primitive communal system, the slave system, feudalism, capitalism and socialism (as the first stage of communism).

In the Soviet years, discussions about the nature of the ideal became popular (only "in the head" or not? David Dubrovsky - Evald Ilyenkov), disputes about the nature of information.

Mikhail Bakhtin develops the ideas of polyphony, dialogue and carnivality. Philosophers A. F. Losev, S. S. Averintsev, V. V. Bibikhin enjoyed great popularity in the late Soviet period. In the late Soviet and post-Soviet period, the ideas of the Moscow-Tartu semiotic school were widely recognized.