Svyatoslav Shulyarenko

Coat of arms

Emden (German pronunciation: [ˈɛmdn̩]) is an independent city and seaport in Lower Saxony in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the main city of the region of East Frisia and, in 2011, had a total population of 51,528.

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History

The exact founding date of Emden is unknown, but it has existed at least since the 8th century. Older names for Emden are Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden and Embderland. Town privilege and the town's coat of arms, the Engelke up de Muer (The Little Angel on the Wall) was granted by Emperor Maximilian I in 1495.

In the 16th century, Emden briefly became an important centre for the Protestant Reformation under the rule of Countess Anna von Oldenburg who was determined to find a religious "third way" between Lutheranism and Catholicism. In 1542 she invited the Polish noble John Laski (or Joahannes a Lasco) to become pastor of a Protestant church at Emden;  and for 7 years he continued to spread the new religion around the area of East Frisia. However, in 1549 following pressure from the Emperor Charles V, the Countess was forced to ask Laski to leave for England and the experiment came to an end. Nevertheless, the legacy was important for the reformation in the Netherlands.

At the end of the 16th century Emden experienced a period of great prosperity. Due to the Spanish blockade of Flemish and Brabant ports at the start of the Dutch Revolt, Emden became the most important transshipment port on the North Sea. Thousands of Protestant refugees came from Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant to the Protestant city Emden to escape persecution by the Spanish rulers of the Low Countries. During this period, the predominantly Calvinist Emden came into conflict with the Lutheran counts of East Friesland. The Emden Revolution in 1595 resulted in Emden becoming a distinct city-state. With the support of the Dutch Republic, Emden became a free government city under the protection of the Dutch Republic. The Brabantian dialect became the official language of trade and civil administration.

Emden was a very rich city during the 17th century, due to large numbers of Dutch and Flemish immigrants such as Diederik Jansz. Graeff. It was a centre of reformed Protestantism at that time. The political theorist Johannes Althusius served as Syndic from 1604 to 1638.

In 1744 Emden was annexed by Prussia. In 1752 Frederick the Great chartered the Emden Company to trade with Canton, but the company was ruined when Emden was captured by French forces in 1757 during the Seven Years' War. The city was recaptured by Anglo-German forces in 1758 and for the rest of the conflict was used as a major supply base by the British to support the ongoing war in Westphalia.

During the Napoleonic French era, Emden and the surrounding lands of East Frisia were part of the short-lived Kingdom of Holland.

Industrialization started at around 1870, with a paper mill and a somewhat bigger shipyard. At the end of the 19th century, a big canal, the Dortmund-Ems Canal was constructed, which connected Emden with the Ruhr area. This made Emden the "seaport of the Ruhr area", which lasted until the 1970s. Coal from the south was transported to the North Sea port, and imported iron ore was shipped via the canal towards Rhine and the Ruhr. The last iron ore freighter was moored in the port of Emden in 1986.

In 1903, a large shipyard (Nordseewerke, "North Sea Works") was founded and was in operation until 2010.

The city centre was almost completely wiped out as a result of Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, destroying nearly all historic buildings. The RAF first bombed Emden on 31 March 1940. The most severe bombing took place on 6 September 1944, when roughly 80 percent of all houses in the city centre were destroyed. In the collective memory of the city, this date still plays an important role. The shipyard area was largely untouched – the British targeted the civilian areas, apparently in response to the bombing of Coventry by the Luftwaffe. The modern rebuilding of the city hall was opened on 6 September 1962, exactly 18 years after the bombing.

Economy

The main industries in Emden are automobile production and shipbuilding. Volkswagen runs a large production plant which builds the Volkswagen Passat car and which employs around 10,000 people. Emden harbor is also one of the three main ports for car shipping in Europe (together with Zeebrugge in Belgium and Bremerhaven in Germany). More than 1.4 million cars were imported and exported in 2017. The Nordseewerke shipyard, a subsidiary of ThyssenKrupp, employs around 1,400 dockers and specializes in conventional submarines. It also produces different kinds of cargo ships as well as ships for special purposes such as icebreakers, dredgers and other ships of that type.

Another important economic sector is tourism, mainly as a day trip destination for tourists staying in the surrounding villages on the North Sea coastline.

A university of applied sciences (Fachhochschule) was opened in 1973. At present, around 4,240 students are enrolled, most of them studying for technical degrees.

The airline Ostfriesische Lufttransport had its headquarters in Emden.

Sports

The highest playing association football club is BSV Kickers Emden. The capacity of the stadium is 7,200, due to safety objections of the German Football Association. In 1994, some 12,000 spectators followed a match against the reserves squad of Hamburger SV, which remains the record. In that season, Kickers Emden finished top of the 3rd League, but were not promoted to the Second League as they lost the promotion round.

Since Emden is not only located close to the North Sea, but also to the river Ems and various small rivers and canals, boat sports are very popular among inhabitants and tourists.

Notable people

• Johann van Lingen (1425–1481), Mayor of Emden
• Jacob Emden, also known as Ya'avetz (1697–1776), leading German rabbi and talmudist
• Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser (c. 1540–1596), sailor in Portuguese and Dutch service
• Johannes Althusius (1563–1638), legal scholar, Calvinist political theorist, city counsel and politician
• Johann Heinrich Alting (1583–1644), reformed theologian
• Martin Hermann Faber (1586–1648), painter, architect, and cartographer
• Ludolf Bakhuizen (1630–1708), major Marinemaler
• Eduard Norden (1868–1941), philologist and religious historian
• Claude France (1893–1928), actor
• Hans Boelsen (1894–1960), general lieutenant in the Second World War
• Henri Nannen (1913–1996), publisher and publicist, founder of Stern magazine
• Hans-Joachim Hespos (born 1938), composer
• Helma Sanders-Brahms (1940–2014), film director and actress
• Karl Dall (1941–2020), presenter, singer and comedian
• Wolfgang Petersen (born 1941), film director and producer
• Otto Waalkes (born 1948), comedian, comic artist, singer and actor
• Eva Herman (born 1958), book author and former television presenter
• Jan van Koningsveld (born 1969), mental calculator
• Heidi Hartmann (born 1971), boxing champion
• Stefan Lampadius (born 1976), actor and filmmaker
• Ferydoon Zandi (born 1979), football player

Self-portrait by Ludolf Bakhuizen

Ships and places named after the city

Three German light cruisers were named after the city, two of which served in World War I and the third in World War II. Today, the fifth navy ship named after the city is in service.

• SMS Emden (1906), a light cruiser in the Kaiserliche Marine, Bay of Bengal, Battle of Cocos
• Emden (1911), schooner, renamed Duhnen, then Brigantine Yankee; made four circumnavigations
• SMS Emden (1916), a light cruiser in the Kaiserliche Marine
• Emden (1925), a light cruiser in the Kriegsmarine, used in the invasion of Norway and Denmark
• F210 Emden (1979), Bremen-class frigate of the German Navy

Retired light vessel Amrumbank in front of Emden city hall.

A deep sea spot in the Pacific Ocean close to the Philippines is named after the first Emden ship, and is therefore called Emdentief in German. The spot (10,400 m or 34,100 ft deep) was sounded in the 1920s (in 1920, 1923 or 1928—sources vary).

In addition, the village of Emden, Illinois in the United States was named after Jacob Emden[8] due to the large number of emigrants from Emden to the village in northwestern Logan County, Illinois. Another namesake city in the USA is the unincorporated town of Embden, North Dakota.

Twin towns – sister cities

Emden is twinned with:

• Arkhangelsk, Russia
• Haugesund, Norway

The City Hall (Rathaus)

The New Church in Emden (1648).

Tomar (Portuguese pronunciation: [tuˈmaɾ] (audio speaker iconlisten)), also known in English as Thomar, is a city and a municipality in the Santarém district of Portugal. The town proper has a population of about 20,000. The municipality population in 2011 was 40,677, in an area of 351.20 km2 (135.60 sq mi).

has a population of about 20,000. The municipality population in 2011 was 40,677, in an area of 351.20 km2 (135.60 sq mi).

Tomar was the last Templar town to be commissioned for construction and one of Portugal's historical jewels. The town was especially important in the 15th century when it was a center of Portuguese overseas expansion under Henry the Navigator, the Grand Master of the Order of Christ, successor organizorganization to the Knights Templar in Portugal.

ation to the Knights Templar in Portugal.

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Zapolyarny (Russian: Заполя́рный; Norwegian: Zapoljarnyj) is a town in Pechengsky District of Murmansk Oblast, Russia, located on the Kola Peninsula, 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) northeast of the Kola Superdeep Borehole project. Population: 15,825 (2010 Census);[2] 18,640 (2002 Census);[6] 23,564 (1989 Census).

The area where the town is located belonged to Finland in 1920–1944. It was founded in 1956 as Zhdanovsk (Жда́новск) and was granted work settlement status and later given its present name.

On February 1, 1963, by the Decree by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, Zapolyarny was elevated in status to that of a town of district significance.

It is the nearest town to the disused Koshka Yavr naval air station.

View of Zapolyarny

View of Polyarny

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Polyarny (Russian: Поля́рный) is a town and the administrative center of the closed administrative-territorial formation of Alexandrovsk in Murmansk Oblast, Russia, situated on the outermost western side of the Kola Bay. Population: 17,293 (2010 Census)

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; 18,552 (2002 Census); 27,635 (1989 Census).

It was previously known as Alexandrovsk (until March 15, 1926), Alexandrovskoye (until March 11, 1931),[8] Polyarnoye (until September 19, 1939).

History

Old coat of arms of Polyarny

It was founded in 1896 and named Alexandrovsk (Алекса́ндровск) in honor of Tsar Alexander III. Other sources, however, state that the original name was Alexandrovsk-na-Murmane (Алекса́ндровск-на-Му́рмане), it was called so after Alexandra Fyodorovna, wife of Emperor Nicholas II, and did not become known as "Alexandrovsk" until later.

Town status was granted to it on June 20 [O.S. June 7], 1899. At the same time, Alexandrovsk became an uyezd town, for which rea

son Kolsky Uyezd was renamed Alexandrovsky.

On May 3, 1920, the Alexandrovskaya Volost Executive Committee divided the territory of the volost into six selsoviets, including Alexandrovsky Selsoviet with the administrative center in Alexandrovsk. However, the Murmansky Uyezd Executive Committee's did not approve the creation of all six selsoviets, with Alexandrovsky Selsoviet being one which did not get an approval.

On October 16, 1925—when the Murmansk Governorate Commission meeting initiated work on compiling the lists of the urban and rural localities—Murmansk, Alexandrovsk, and Kola were categorized as urban; however, a recommendation was sent to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) to demote the latter two to rural localities due to economic conditions, sparse population, low trade volume, lack of industrial enterprises, and "general regression". On January 9, 1926, the assembly of the town residents created Alexandrovsky Selsoviet[13] and on March 15, 1926, when the VTsIK approved the recommendation to demote the towns, Alexandrovsk and Kola were re-categorized as rural localities. At the same time the name was unofficially changed to Alexandrovskoye (Александровское).[citation needed]

On January 12, 1931, the Third Congress of the Soviets of Alexandrovsky District issued a resolution, renaming the district "Polyarny"; at the same time the village of Alexandrovskoye was renamed Polyarnoye (Поля́рное). On March 5, 1931 the new name of the district was approved by the administrative commission of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, and on March 11, 1931—by its Presidium. While the Presidium of the VTsIK never officially gave a final approval for this renaming, de facto the name has changed.

In 1934, the Murmansk Okrug Executive Committee unsuccessfully petitioned to grant town status to Polyarnoye and to rename it Krasnoflotsk. Town status, however, was not granted to Polyarnoye until September 19, 1939, when it was at the same time renamed Polyarny.

By the June 14, 1956 Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, Polyarny was demoted in status to that of a town under district jurisdiction and subordinated to Polyarny District. By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of July 9, 1960, Polyarny District was abolished and the town of Polyarny was administratively subordinated to Severomorsk. Finally, by the June 17, 1983 Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR Decree, the town was elevated in status to that of a town under oblast jurisdiction, and by the August 10, 1983 Decision of the Murmansk Oblast Executive Committee, several inhabited localities previously subordinated to Severomorsk were transferred to it.

Administrative and municipal status

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Polyarny serves as the administrative center of the closed administrative-territorial formation of Alexandrovsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts—to which it is directly subordinated. Within the framework of municipal divisions, the town of Polyarny is a part of Alexandrovsk Urban Okrug.

Watercolor of HMS Ulysses at "Polyarno" (Polyarny), May 1944, by Arnold Barlow (crewmember).

Military

Since the 1930s Polyarny has had naval significance.[19] Russian Shipyard Number 10 (Shkval) is located in Polyarny, and in the West is more often referred to by the name of the town than by its official name. As the first nuclear-powered submarines were delivered to the Northern Fleet at the end of the 1950s, the yard was modified for docking and repair of these vessels. As Soviet (and now Russian) naval nuclear vessels are decommissioned, they are laid up at Polyarny to await defuelling and disposal.

Kilo-class submarines

Honors

In a presidential decree dated May 5, 2008, the town of Polyarny was awarded the title of City of Military Glory.

In popular culture

In the Tom Clancy novel The Hunt for Red October, the experimental Typhoon-class nuclear submarine Red October departs on her voyage from Polyarny.

In 2018 action thriller Hunter Killer, directed by Donovan Marsh, the main plot revolves around an attempted coup d'état against the Russian President while he is visiting a major Russian base of naval operations in Polyarny.

View of the town in June 2013

Kirkenes (Norwegian: [ˈçîrkəneːs] (audio speaker iconlisten); Northern Sami: Girkonjárga; Skolt Sami: Ǩeârkknjargg; Finnish: Kirkkoniemi; Kven: Kirkkoniemi; Russian: Киркенес) is a town in Sør-Varanger Municipality in Troms og Finnmark county, in the far northeastern part of Norway. The town lies on a peninsula along the Bøkfjorden, an arm of the large Varangerfjorden. The main chur

ch for Kirkenes is Kirkenes Church, located in the Haganes area of the town. Kirkenes is located just a few kilometres from the Norway-Russia border.

The 2.14-square-kilometre (530-acre) town has a population (2018) of 3,529, which gives the town a population density of 1,649 inhabitants per square kilometre (4,270/sq mi). When the neighbouring suburban villages of Hesseng, Sandnes, and Bjørnevatn are all included with Kirkenes, the urban area reaches a total population of almost 8,000 people.

Although Kirkenes is the Norwegian town closest to the Russian border, Vardø to its north is located further east in Norway.

People of Kirkenes returning home after the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive.

History

The area around Kirkenes was a common Norwegian–Russian district until 1826, when the present border was settled. The original name of the peninsula was Piselvnes ("Pis River headland"), but this was changed to Kirkenes (meaning "church headland") after the Kirkenes Church was built here in 1862. Kirkenes was a village until 1998 when it received town status.

World War II

During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, Kirkenes was one of the many bases for the German Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe's Jagdgeschwader 5, and apart from that, the area served as a main base for supplies to the Murmansk front (see Lapland War).

Reportedly, Kirkenes is second after Malta on a list of European towns experiencing air-raid alarms and attacks, with more than 1,000 alarms and 320 air attacks. The town was taken over by the Red Army on 25 October 1944 when the German Wehrmacht was pushed out and fled the area after having destroyed most of the remaining infrastructure. Only 13 houses survived the war. Close to the town there is a memorial to 11 freedom fighters who helped the partisans collect information about the German occupation. In the summer of 1943, their activities were discovered and many of them were sent to a prisoner-of-war camp near Kirkenes. Following a court-martial the 11 were sentenced to death and were killed near the memorial spot on 18 August 1943. When the common grave was opened in 1946 it was found that the men had been beaten to death. Following the post mortem and memorial service, the bodies were returned to their homesteads.

Demographics

Monument to commemorate the mothers of World War II.

The majority of the inhabitants of Kirkenes are of a Norwegian background, and a minority are Sami. Others are originally from Finland, either members of the Kven population or of a newer influx of more or less recent Finnish immigrants. Also, about 500 people are relatively recent Russian immigrants. For several months in 2015, the town served as a border crossing point for Syrian refugees, with hundreds per week crossing the border on bicycles, traveled into Norway from Russia (via Murmansk and Nikel).

Geography

Kirkenes is located in the extreme northeastern part of Norway on the Bøkfjorden, a branch of the Varangerfjorden, which is a vast bay connected to the Barents Sea near the Russian–Norwegian border. The town is situated about 400 kilometres (250 mi) north of the Arctic Circle, resulting in midnight sun and polar night both lasting for sustained lengths of time depending on season.

Kirkenes is located just east of the 30th meridian east. As a result, it is further east than Istanbul, which marks one of the European borders with Asia. The easternmost point of Norway and the municipality is also at a point further east than Saint Petersburg.

Unlike the vast majority of Norway, Kirkenes is located east of the neighbouring country of Finland. Because of this, travelling directly west from Kirkenes actually changes the time zone forward instead of backward, as it usually does. Travelling directly east from Kirkenes (into Russia) changes the time zone forward by an hour in summer, but by two in winter. When Russia implemented permanent daylight saving time between 2011 and 2014, there was a three-hour difference travelling forward from the eastern part of the municipality to westerly Russian areas during winter. It also shares time zones with Galicia in Spain, in spite of a solar time difference of 2½ hours.

One can drive 100 kilometres (62 mi) south, and walk 10 kilometres (6.2 mi), into the Øvre Pasvik National Park, reaching the border point of the three countries (Muotkavaara), where the three time zones meet. There are only a few such places in the world. It is forbidden, according to both Norwegian and Russian law, to circumambulate the border marker, as the only lawful route across the Norwegian–Russian border is at the border control at Storskog.

Climate

The midnight sun shines from May 17 to July 21. The corresponding polar night extends from November 21 to January 21. Despite its location at the coast, Kirkenes exhibits a more continental subarctic climate (Dfc) than further west along the Northern Norwegian coast. This is due to less maritime air from the west reaching across the land east to Kirkenes. The all-time high 32.7 °C (91 °F) was recorded in July 1972 and the record low −41.8 °C (−43 °F) in January 1999. The coldest low after 2000 was −32.7 °C (−27 °F) in February 2003.[citation needed] Due to its cool summers vegetation is typical of the northern taiga, with forest of pine and birch. Considering its latitude the climate is still mild, compared with most other Arctic port cities.

Economy and tourism

The Norwegian Barents Secretariat is located in Kirkenes.

There is now substantial optimism in the town as a consequence of the increased petroleum-drilling activity in the Barents Sea (including Russian activity). Bøkfjorden, an excellent harbour, has attracted interest from several large companies.

Norway's and Russia's Foreign Ministers signed an agreement on 2 November 2010 that will make it much easier for 9,000 Norwegians and 45,000 Russians to visit each other.

Tourist attractions include Grenselandmuseet (The Border Area Museum), which shows the history of war and peace along the Norwegian–Russian border, Sami art exhibitions by the artist John Savio (1902–1938), and a history of the mining industry in the area. The museum has a small shop and café. Almost every last Thursday of each month the Russian Market takes place on the central square where traders from Murmansk sell their merchandise. Here you can find everything from matryoshkas, linen cloths, and handicrafts, to Russian crystal and porcelain dishes.

Just outside Kirkenes is a military base that is home to the Garrison of Sør-Varanger at Høybuktmoen. Connected to this base are the six border stations along the Russian border. This base and these border stations are there to protect against illegal immigrants as well as other illegal activities across the border. The only public border crossing is at Storskog, southeast of Kirkenes.

In the city centre of Kirkenes is Andersgrotta, a vast underground bunker built during World War II that provided shelter to the town's residents. Tours of the bunker are available.

A pride parade held in 2017 in Kirkenes attracted participants from neighbouring Russia, who were unwilling to participate in LGBT events in Russia due to hostility from the government and police. In addition, the parade saw participants from Amnesty International and the Norwegian Helsinki Committee.

Kirkenes's location on the Northeast Passage and the effect of climate change on sea ice have led to expressions of interest to develop port and transport infrastructure in the town, including from state-owned enterprises of China. Public reception to such projects in Kirkenes is mixed.

Transportation

Kirkenes seaport.

Kirkenes is one end of the route of the Hurtigruten, which cruises daily up and down the Norway coast to and from Bergen. Kirkenes is served by Kirkenes Airport, Høybuktmoen. There are non-stop flights to Oslo, Vadsø, Vardø, Alta and Tromsø. The European route E6 has its northern terminus at Kirkenes. The northern terminus of the European route E105 highway is located in Hesse

ng, just south of the town.

Kirkenes is also the terminus of Kirkenes–Bjørnevatn Line, the world's second-most northerly railway line, used to transport iron ore from the mines at Bjørnevatn to the port at Kirkenes. The proposed Arctic Railway would see Kirkenes connected with northern Finland.

The town of Kirkenes is also the starting point of EV13 The Iron Curtain Trail, a cycling route that runs along the historic border between the capitalist West and the communist East during the Cold War.

A hospital in Kirkenes.

A hospital in Kirkenes.

A bus to Bjørnevatn in Kirkenes.

Sister cities

• Nikel, Murmansk Oblast, Russia
• Kars, Kars Province, Turkey

Notable people

• Turid Balke (1921–2000) a Norwegian actress, playwright and artist
• Arnfinn Laudal (born 1936) a Norwegian mathematician
• Per Oskar Kjølaas (born 1948) Bishop of the Diocese of Nord-Hålogaland from 2002 to 2014
• Roger Ryberg (born 1952) a Norwegian politician
• Morten Strøksnes (born 1965) a journalist and non-fiction writer
• Jarle Vespestad (born 1966) a Norwegian jazz musician
• Simen Johan (born 1973) a Norwegian-Swedish contemporary artist, photographer and sculptor living in New York City
• Yvonne Wartiainen (born 1976) a painter, mixing figurative shapes with abstract motives
• Ørjan Nilsen (born 1982) a producer and DJ

Sport

• Grethe Mathiesen (born 1956) a swimmer, competed at the 1972 Summer Olympics in the women's 100 metre freestyle
• Kirsten Borgen (born 1957) is a Norwegian sport wrestler
• Vegard Ulva
• ng (born 1963) a cross-country skier who won three Olympic gold medals, two silver, and one bronze
• Vegard Sannes (born 1976) a retired football midfielder, 125 club caps with FK Bodø/Glimt
• John Kristian Dahl (born 1981) three times Vasaloppet winner

Webcam

Live webcam footage of the town can be viewed at http://www.webcamsue.nl/

Kirkenes is located very far from most of Europe. Distances are along the E6 road even if the road through Finland is shorter.

Another view of Kirkenes.

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Gori (Georgian: გორი [ɡɔri]) is a city in eastern Georgia, which serves as the regional capital of Shida Kartli and is located at the confluence of two rivers, the Mtkvari and the Liakhvi. Gori is fifth-most populous city in Georgia. The name comes from a Georgian

word gora (გორა), meaning "heap", or "hill", or a mountain.

A settlement known here from the Hellenistic period, with the Gori Fortress built at least in 7th century, it received a town status in the 12th century. Gori was an important military stronghold in the Middle Ages and maintains a strategic importance due to its location on the principal highway connecting eastern and western parts of Georgia. In the course of its history, Gori has been invaded by the armies of regional powers several times. The city was occupied by Russian troops during the 2008 Russo–Georgian War. Gori is also known as the birthplace of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, ballistic missile designer Alexander Nadiradze and philosopher Merab Mamardashvili.

Geography and climate

Gori is located 86 kilometers (53 mi) west of Georgia's capital Tbilisi, at the confluence of the rivers Mtkvari and Greater Liakhvi, 588 meters (1,929 ft) above sea level. The climate is humid continental, transitional from moderately warm steppe to moderately humid. Summer is usually hot. The average annual temperature is 11.2 °C (52.2 °F), minimal in January (−0.4 °C or 31.3 °F) and maximal in July and August (22.1 °C or 71.8 °F). The maximum precipitation falls in May (76 mm or 3.0 in) and minimum in February (34 mm or 1.3 in). Precipitation here averages 603 mm.

History

Gori Fortress as of 1642, by an Italian missionary, Cristoforo Castelli

The territory of Gori has been populated since the early Bronze Age. According to medieval Georgian chronicles, the town of Gori was founded by King David IV (r. 1089–1125) who settled refugees from Armenia there. However, the fortress of Gori (Goris-Tsikhe) appears to have been in use already in the 7th century, and archaeological evidence indicates the existence of an urban community in Classical Antiquity. In 1299, Gori was captured by the Alan tribesmen fleeing the Mongol conquest of their original homeland in the North Caucasus. The Georgian king George V recovered the town in 1320, pushing the Alans back over the Caucasus mountains.

With the downfall of the medieval Georgian kingdom, Gori – strategically located at the crossroads of major transit routes – was frequently targeted by foreign invaders, and changed its masters on several occasions. It was first taken and sacked by Uzun Hassan of the Ak Koyunlu in 1477, followed by Tahmasp I of Persia in the mid-16th century. By the end of that century, Gori briefly passed to the Ottomans through the 1578–90 Ottoman–Persian War, and became their major outpost in Georgia until being recovered by the Georgians under Simon I of Kartli after heavy fighting in 1599. The town was once again garrisoned by the Persians under Shah Abbas I in 1614. Following successive occupations by the Ottomans (1723–35) and Persians (1735–40s), Gori returned to Georgian control under the kings Teimuraz II and Erekle II whose efforts helped to advance economy and culture in the town. Following the Russian annexation of Georgia, Gori was granted the status of a town within the Gori Uyezd of the Tiflis Governorate in 1801. It grew in size and population throughout the 19th century. A plan of 1824 shows the town on the hill slopes below the citadel, and a mote around it. The town was destroyed in the 1920 earthquake, and almost completely rebuilt in the Soviet period. An important industrial center in Soviet times, Gori suffered from an economic collapse and the outflow of the population during the years of a post-Soviet crisis of the 1990s.

Gori is close to the Georgian–Ossetian conflict zone. It is connected to breakaway South Ossetia's capital Tskhinvali via a railroad spur which has been defunct since the early 1990s. Since the 2000s, Georgia has increased the military infrastructure in and around the city. Thus, the Central Military Hospital was relocated from Tbilisi to Gori and re-equipped in October 2006. On January 18, 2008, Georgia's second NATO-standard base to accommodate the 1st Infantry Brigade (Georgia) of the Georgian Ground Forces was established at Gori. The Georgian Agrarian Science Academy Branch was established in the city in 1995; this became Sukhishvili University in 2003.

2008 conflict

A damaged apartment building in Gori.

In the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, the town came under aerial attack by the Russian Air Force from the outset of the conflict. Military targets and residential districts of Gori were hit by the airstrikes, resulting in civilian injuries and deaths. Human Rights Watch (HRW) claimed that Russian forces had indiscriminately deployed cluster bombs in civilian areas around Gori. According to HRW

, on August 12 Russian forces dropped cluster bombs in the center of Gori, killing 11 civilians and wounding dozens more. Russian military officials deny using cluster munitions in the conflict, calling the HRW assertion "slanderous" and questioning the HRW's objectivity. Numerous unexploded "bomblets" have been found by locals and HRW employees.

By August 11, Georgian military personnel, government, and most residents had fled the city, which was then captured and occupied by the Russian military and South Ossetian separatist militia. HRW accused the militia of unleashing a campaign of looting, arson, kidnapping and other attacks against the remaining civilian population. The Russian and South Ossetian forces withdrew from the city on August 22, 2008. The following day Units of the Georgian Army returned to Gori. However, Russian checkpoints remained near Gori as well as in so-called buffer zones near the borders with Abkhazia and South Ossetia.

Landmarks

Statue of Stalin stood outside the Town Hall until being removed in 2010 as part of the country's de-Sovietization process

Gori and its environs house several notable cultural and historical landmarks. Although for many foreigners Gori is principally known as the birthplace of Joseph Stalin, in Georgian historical memory the city has long been associated with its citadel, the Gori Fortress, which is built on a cliffy hill overlooking the central part of the modern city. On another hill stands the 18th century

St. George's church of Gorijvari, a popular place of pilgrimage. The famous ancient rock-hewn town of Uplistsikhe and the 7th century Ateni Sioni Church are located not far from Gori. Stalin's association with the city is emphasized by the Joseph Stalin Museum in downtown Gori and, until recently, the Stalin monument in front of the Gori City Hall, one of the few such monuments to survive Nikita Khrushchev's de-Stalinization program. The monument was a source of controversy in a newly independent Georgia in the 1990s, but for several years the post-communist government acceded to the Gori citizens' request and left the statue untouched. It was ultimately removed on June 25, 2010. However, on 20 December 2012, the municipal assembly of Gori voted to reinstate the monument.

Administrative divisions

The city is divided into 11 administrative districts, they are:

• Kvernaki Settlement
• Verkhvebi Settlement
• Tsmindatskali 1st Locality
• Tsmindatskali 2nd Locality
• IDPs Settlement
• Sadguri-Elektripikatsia Settlement
• Chala-Tskarosubani Settlement
• Kombinati Settlement 1st Locality
• Kombinati Settlement 2nd Locality
• Central Settlement 1st Locality
• Central Settlement 2nd Locality

Notable people

Road sign in Gori

• Joseph Stalin (1878–1953), Soviet leader
• Simon Arshaki Ter-Petrosian (1882–1922), revolutionary
• Vano Muradeli (1908–1970), composer
• Aleksand
• re Machavariani (1913–1995), composer
• Aleksandr Nadiradze (1914–1987), inventor
• Edvard Mirzoyan (1921–2012), composer
• Sulkhan Tsintsadze (1925–1991), composer
• Merab Mamardashvili (1930–1990), philosopher
• Giorgi Tenadze (born 1962), wrestler
• Vazha Tarkhnishvili (born 1971), footballer
• Georgi Kandelaki (born 1974), boxer
• Lasha Shavdatuashvili (born 1992), wrestler
• Geno Petriashvili (born 1994), wrestler
• Oto Nemsadze (born 1989), singer
• Vladimer Khinchegashvili (born 1991), wrestler, Olympic & World Champion

Important sights

Akaki Tsereteli street

• Gori Fortress
• Gori Cathedral of Saint Mary
• Gori State Historical-Ethnographic Museum
• Joseph Stalin State Museum
• House of Amilakhvris
• Monument to Nikoloz Baratashvili

Gori Cathedral

• Monument to Iakob Gogebashvili
• Gori Pedagogical Institute
• Gori State Drama Theater
• Gori State Historical-Ethnographic Museum
• Gorijvari
• Erekle Baths
• Monument to Giorgi Eristavi
• Monument to Nico Lomouri
• Military city
• Theological School

Gori Central Park

St. George church in Gori

Akaki Tsereteli street in Gori

Panorama of Gori

Demographics

According to the 2010 Census, the population of Xinyang is of 6,109,106 inhabitants, 6.39% less than the population marked on the last census of 2000, when there were 6,527,368 inhabitants in the city.

Its built up area is home to 1,230,042 inhabitants spread out on 2 urban districts and 3,665.9 square kilometres (1,415.4 sq mi).

inlanshan National Forest Park (金兰山国家森林公园), Xin County

Culture

Xinyang Tea Culture Festival is held during April, 28th and 30th every year. The 25,000-capacity Xinyang Stadium, which has a capacity of 25,000, is located in the city. It is used mostly for association football and sometimes for athletics.

Transportation

Highway system

• China National Highway 312
• China National Highway 107
• G4 Beijing–Hong Kong–Macau Expressway
• G40 Shanghai–Xi'an Expressway
• G45 Daqing–Guangzhou Expressway

Railway system

• Jingguang Railway
• Jingjiu Railway
• Ningxi Railway
• Beijing–Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong High-Speed Railway

Airport

• Xinyang Minggang Airport

Education

Higher Education

• Xinyang Normal College
• Xinyang Agricultural College

Secondary Education

• Xinyang Senior High School

Recreation

• Jigong Mountain
• Nanwan Lake
• Lingshan Temple

Twin towns

• Niimi, Okayama, Japan
• Ashkelon, Israel

Location of Xinyang City jurisdiction in Henan

Xinyang (simplified Chinese: 信阳; traditional Chinese: 信陽; pinyin: Xìnyáng; postal: Sinyang) is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Henan province, People's Republic of China, the southernmost administrative division in the province. Its total population was 6,234,401 according to the 2020 census. As of the 2010 census, 1,230,042 of them lived in the built-up (or metro)

area made of two urban districts, Pingqiao and Shihe.

Geography

Geography of city

The prefecture-level city of Xinyang has a total land area of 18,819 square kilometres (7,266 sq mi). The city is located in the southernmost part of Henan Province on the south bank of the Huai River and in the middle of the Dabie Mountains area. It borders the cities Zhumadian to the north and Nanyang to the northwest, and the provinces of Anhui and Hubei to the east and south respectively. The region where Xinyang is located is considered a subtropical area and the Dabie mountainous terrain is mainly to the north, south, and east of the city.

Climate

Xinyang has a monsoon-influenced, four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with cold, damp winters, and hot, humid summers. The months of April through June here are slightly cooler than much of the rest of the province. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 2.4 °C (36.3 °F) in January to 27.3 °C (81.1 °F) in July; the annual mean is 15.54 °C (60.0 °F). The annual precipitation is just above 1,100 millimetres (43 in), and close to two-thirds of it occurs from May to September. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 38% in March to 47% in four months, the city receives 1,974 hours of bright sunshine annually; January through March are the cloudiest months.

Administration

The Xinyang City is divided into two districts and eight counties.

• Shihe District
• Pingqiao District
• Huangchuan County
• Huaibin County
• Xi County
• Xin County
• Shangcheng County
• Gushi County
• Luoshan County
• Guangshan County

Coat of arms

Ashkelon or Ashqelon (/ˈæʃkəlɒn/; Hebrew: audio speaker iconאַשְׁקְלוֹן, ʾAšqəlōn, [aʃkeˈlon]; Philistine: *ʾĪšqālān), also known as Ascalon (/ˈæskəlɒn/; Greek: Ἀσκάλων, Askálōn; Arabic: عَسْقَلَان, ʿAsqalān), is a coastal city in the Southern District of Israel on the Mediterranean coast, 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of Tel Aviv, and 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of the border with the Gaza Strip. The ancient seaport of Ashkelon dates back to the Neolithic Age. In the course of its history, it has been ruled by the Ancient Egyptians, the Canaanites, the Philistines, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Greeks, the Phoenicians, the Hasmo

neans, the Romans, the Persians, the Arabs and the Crusaders, until it was destroyed by the Mamluks in 1270.

The area's early modern population was centered in the large town of al-Majdal or al-Majdal Asqalan (Arabic: المجدل; Hebrew: אֵל־מִגְ׳דַּל), a few kilometres inland from the ancient site. In 1918, it became part of the British Occupied Enemy Territory Administration and in 1920 became part of Mandatory Palestine. Al-Majdal on the eve of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War had 10,000 Arab inhabitants and in October 1948, the city accommodated thousands more refugees from nearby villages. Al-Majdal was the forward position of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force based in Gaza. The village was conquered by Israeli forces on 5 November 1948, by which time most of the Arab population had fled, leaving some 2,700 inhabitants, of which 500 were deported by Israeli soldiers in December 1948.

The town was initially named Migdal Gaza, Migdal Gad and Migdal Ashkelon by the new Jewish inhabitants. Most of the remaining Arabs were deported by 1950. In 1953, the coastal neighborhood of Afridar was incorporated and the name "Ashkelon" was adopted for the combined town. By 1961, Ashkelon was ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000.[6] In 2019 the population of Ashkelon was 144,073, making it the third-largest city in Israel's Southern District.

Etymology

The name Ashkelon is probably western Semitic, and might be connected to the triliteral root š-q-l ("to weigh" from a Semitic root ṯql, akin to Hebrew šāqal שָקַל or Arabic θiql ثِقْل "weight") perhaps attesting to its importance as a center for mercantile activities. Its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic as šqln and ʾšqln. Scallion and shallot are derived from Ascalonia, the Latin name for Ashkelon.

Archaeology

Archaeological site with artifacts from the Neolithic era.

Beginning in the 1700s the site was visited, and occasionally drawn, by a number of adventurers and tourists. It was also often scavenged for building materials. The first known excavation occurred in 1815. The Lady Hester Stanhope dug there for two weeks using 150 workers. No real records were kept. From 1920 to 1922 John Garstang and W. J. Phythian-Adams excavated on beh

alf of the Palestine Exploration Fund. They focused on two areas, one Roman and the other Philistine/Canaanite. In the years following, a number of salvage excavations were done by the Israel Antiquities Authority.

Modern excavation began in 1985 with the Leon Levy Expedition. Between then and 2006 seventeen seasons of work occurred, led by Lawrence Stager of Harvard University. In 2007 the next phase of excavation began under Daniel Master. It continued until 2016.

History

Ashkelon was the oldest and largest seaport in Canaan, part of the pentapolis (a grouping of five cities) of the Philistines, north of Gaza and south of Jaffa.

Neolithic period

Ashkelon Pre-Pottery Neolithic C flint arrowheads.

The Neolithic site of Ashkelon is located on the Mediterranean coast, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north of Tel Ashkelon. It is dated by Radiocarbon dating to c. 7900 bp (uncalibrated), to the poorly known Pre-Pottery Neolithic C phase of the Neolithic. It was discovered and excavated in 1954 by French archaeologist Jean Perrot. In 1997–1998, a large scale salvage project was conducte

d at the site by Yosef Garfinkel on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and nearly 1,000 square metres (11,000 sq ft) were examined. A final excavation report was published in 2008.

In the site over a hundred fireplaces and hearths were found and numerous pits, but no solid architecture, except for one wall. Various phases of occupation were found, one atop the other, with sterile layers of sea sand between them. This indicates that the site was occupied on a seasonal basis.

The main finds were enormous quantities of around 100,000 animal bones and around 20,000 flint artifacts. Usually at Neolithic sites flints far outnumber animal bones. The bones belong to domesticated and non-domesticated animals. When all aspects of this site are taken into account, it appears to have been used by pastoral nomads for meat processing. The nearby sea could supply salt necessary for the conservation of meat.

Canaanite settlement

Restored Canaanite city gate of Ashkelon.

The city was originally built on a sandstone outcropping and has a good underground water supply. It was relatively large as an ancient city with as many as 15,000 people living inside the walls. Ashkelon was a thriving Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BCE) city of more than 150 acres (61 ha). Its commanding ramparts measured 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long, 50 feet (15 m) high and 150 feet (46

m) thick, and even as a ruin they stand two stories high. The thickness of the walls was so great that the mudbrick city gate had a stone-lined, 8-foot-wide (2.4 m) tunnel-like barrel vault, coated with white plaster, to support the superstructure: it is the oldest such vault ever found. Later Roman and Islamic fortifications, faced with stone, followed the same footprint, a vast semicircle protecting Ashkelon on the land side. On the sea it was defended by a high natural bluff. A roadway more than 20 feet (6.1 m) in width ascended the rampart from the harbor and entered a gate at the top.

In 1991 the ruins of a small ceramic tabernacle was found a finely cast bronze statuette of a bull calf, originally silvered, four inches (10 cm) long. Images of calves and bulls were associated with the worship of the Canaanite gods El and Baal.

Ashkelon is mentioned in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 11th dynasty as "Asqanu."[28] In the Amarna letters (c. 1350 BC), there are seven letters to and from Ashkelon's (Ašqaluna) king Yidya, and the Egyptian pharaoh. One letter from the pharaoh to Yidya was discovered in the early 1900s.

Philistine settlement

The Philistines conquered Canaanite Ashkelon about 1150 BCE. Their earliest pottery, types of structures and inscriptions are similar to the early Greek urbanised centre at Mycenae in mainland Greece, adding weight to the hypothesis that the Philistines were one of the populations among the "Sea Peoples" that upset cultures throughout the eastern Mediterranean at that time.

Ashkelon became one of the five Philistine cities that were constantly warring with the Israelites and later the United Kingdom of Israel and successive Kingdom of Judah. According to Herodotus, its temple of Venus was the oldest of its kind, imitated even in Cyprus, and he mentions that this temple was pillaged by marauding Scythians during the time of their sway over the Medes (653–625 BCE). As it was the last of the Philistine cities to hold out against Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. When it fell in 604 BCE, burnt and destroyed and its people taken into exile, the Philistine era was over.

Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods

Ashkelon was soon rebuilt. Until the conquest of Alexander the Great, Ashkelon's inhabitants were influenced by the dominant Persian culture. It is in this archaeological layer that excavations have found dog burials. It is believed the dogs may have had a sacred role; however, evidence is not conclusive. After the conquest of Alexander in the 4th century BCE, Ashkelon was an important free city and Hellenistic seaport.

It had mostly friendly relations with the Hasmonean kingdom and Herodian kingdom of Judea, in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. In a significant case of an early witch-hunt, during the reign of the Hasmonean queen Salome Alexandra, the court of Simeon ben Shetach sentenced to death eighty women in Ashkelon who had been charged with sorcery. Herod the Great, who became a client king of Rome over Judea and its environs in 30 BCE, had not received Ashkelon, yet he built monumental buildings there: bath houses, elaborate fountains and large colonnades. A discredited tradition suggests Ashkelon was his birthplace. In 6 CE, when a Roman imperial province was set in Judea, overseen by a lower-rank governor, Ashkelon was moved directly to the higher jurisdiction of the governor of Syria province.

The city remained loyal to Rome during the Great Revolt, 66–70 CE.

Byzantine period

The city of Ascalon appears on a fragment of the 6th-century Madaba Map.

The bishops of Ascalon whose names are known include Sabinus, who was at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and his immediate successor, Epiphanius. Auxentius took part in the First Council of Constantinople in 381, Jobinus in a synod held in Lydda in 415, Leontius in both the Robber Council of Ephesus in 449 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Bishop Dionysius, who represented Ascalon at a synod in Jerusalem in 536, was on another occasion called upon to pronounce on the validity of a baptism with sand in waterless desert and sent the person to be baptized in water.

No longer a residential bishopric, Ascalon is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.

Early Islamic period

During the Muslim conquest of Palestine begun in c. 633–634, Ascalon (called Asqalan by the Arabs) became one of the last Byzantine cities in the region to fall. It may have been temporarily occupied by Amr ibn al-As, but definitively surrendered to Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (who later founded the Umayyad Caliphate) not long after he captured the Byzantine district capital of Caesarea in c. 640. The Byzantines reoccupied Asqalan during the Second Muslim Civil War (680–692), but the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) recaptured and fortified it. A son of Caliph Sulayman (r. 715–717), whose family resided in Palestine, was buried in the city. An inscription found in the city indicates that the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi ordered the construction of a mosque with a minaret in Asqalan in 772.

Asqalan prospered under the Fatimid Caliphate and contained a mint and secondary naval base. Along with a few other coastal towns in Palestine, it remained in Fatimid hands when most of Islamic Syria was conquered by the Seljuks. However, during this period, Fatimid rule over Asqalan was periodically reduced to nominal authority over the city's governor. In 1091, a couple of years after a campaign by grand vizier Badr al-Jamali to reestablish Fatimid control over the region, the head of Husayn ibn Ali (a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) was "rediscovered", prompting Badr to order the construction of a new mosque and mashhad (shrine or mausoleum) to hold the relic. (According to another source, the shrine was built in 1098 by the Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah.) The mausoleum was described as the most magnificent building in Ashkelon. In the British Mandate period it was a "large maqam on top of a hill" with no tomb, but a fragment of a pillar showing the place where the head had been buried. In July 1950, the shrine was destroyed at the instructions of Moshe Dayan in accordance with a 1950s Israeli policy of erasing Muslim historical sites within Israel. Around 2000, a modest marble mosque was constructed on the site by Mohammed Burhanuddin, an Indian Islamic leader of the Dawoodi Bohras.

Crusaders, Ayyubids, and Mamluks

During the Crusades, Asqalan (known to the Crusaders as Ascalon) was an important city due to its location near the coast and between the Crusader States and Egypt. In 1099, shortly after the Siege of Jerusalem, a Fatimid army that had been sent to relieve Jerusalem was defeated by a Crusader force at the Battle of Ascalon. The city itself was not captured by the Crusaders because of internal disputes among their leaders. This battle is widely considered to have signified the end of the First Crusade. As a result of military reinforcements from Egypt and a large influx of refugees from areas conquered by the Crusaders, Asqalan became a major Fatimid frontier post. The Fatimids utilized it to launch raids into the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Trade ultimately resumed between Asqalan and Crusader-controlled Jerusalem, though the inhabitants of Asqalan regularly struggled with shortages in food and supplies, necessitating the provision of goods and relief troops to the city from Egypt on several occasions each year. According to William of Tyre, the entire civilian population of the city was included in the Fatimid army registers. The Crusaders' capture of the port city of Tyre in 1134 and their construction of a ring of fortresses around the city to neutralize its threat to Jerusalem strategically weakened Asqalan. In 1150 the Fatimids fortified the city with fifty-three towers, as it was their most important frontier fortress. Three years later, after a seven-month siege, the city was captured by a Crusader army led by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem. The Fatimids secured the head of Husayn from its mausoleum in the city and transported it to their capital Cairo. Ascalon was then added to the County of Jaffa to form the County of Jaffa and Ascalon, which became one of the four major seigneuries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem the six elders of the Karaite Jewish community in Ashkelon contributed to the ransoming of captured Jews and holy relics from Jerusalem's new rulers. The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon, which was sent to the Jewish elders of Alexandria, describes their participation in the ransom effort and the ordeals suffered by many of the freed captives. A few hundred Jews, Karaites and Rabbanites, were living in Ashkelon in the second half of the 12th century, but moved to Jerusalem when the city was destroyed in 1191.

In 1187, Saladin took Ashkelon as part of his conquest of the Crusader States following the Battle of Hattin. In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Saladin demolished the city because of its potential strategic importance to the Christians, but the leader of the Crusade, King Richard I of England, constructed a citadel upon the ruins. Ashkelon subsequently remained part of the diminished territories of Outremer throughout most of the 13th century and Richard, Earl of Cornwall reconstructed and refortified the citadel during 1240–41, as part of the Crusader policy of improving the defences of coastal sites. The Egyptians retook Ashkelon in 1247 during As-Salih Ayyub's conflict with the Crusader States and the city was returned to Muslim rule. The Mamluk dynasty came into power in Egypt in 1250 and the ancient and medieval history of Ashkelon was brought to an end in 1270, when the Mamluk sultan Baybars ordered the citadel and harbour at the site to be destroyed. As a result of this destruction, the site was abandoned by its inhabitants and fell into disuse.

Ottoman period

El-Jurah

The Palestinian village of Al-Jura (El-Jurah) stood northeast of and immediately adjacent to Tel Ashkelon and is documented in Ottoman tax registers.

Majdal

The Arab village of Majdal was mentioned by historians and tourists at the end of the 15th century. In 1596, Ottoman records showed Majdal to be a large village of 559 Muslim households, making it the 7th-most-populous locality in Palestine after Safad, Jerusalem, Gaza, Nablus, Hebron and Kafr Kanna.

An official Ottoman village list of about 1870 showed that Medschdel had a total of 420 houses and a population of 1175, though the population count included men only.

Mandatory Palestine

El-Jurah

El-Jurah was depopulated during the 1948 war.

Majdal

In the 1922 census of Palestine, Majdal had a population of 5,064; 33 Christians and 5,031 Muslims, increasing in the 1931 census to 6,166 Muslims and 41 Christians.

In the 1945 statistics Majdal had a population of 9,910; ninety Christians and 9,820 Muslims, with a total (urban and rural) of 43,680 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Two thousand two hundred and fifty dunes were public land; all the rest was owned by Arabs. of the dunams, 2,337 were used for citrus and bananas, 2,886 were plantations and irrigable land, 35,442 for cereals, while 1,346 were built-up land.

Majdal was especially known for its weaving industry.[citation needed] The town had around 500 looms in 1909. In 1920 a British Government report estimated that there were 550 cotton looms in the town with an annual output worth 30–40 million francs. But the industry suffered from imports from Europe and by 1927 only 119 weaving establishments remained. The three major fabrics produced were "malak" (silk), 'ikhdari' (bands of red and green) and 'jiljileh' (dark red bands). These were used for festival dresses throughout Southern Palestine. Many other fabrics were produced, some with poetic names such as ji'nneh u nar ("heaven and hell"), nasheq rohoh ("breath of the soul") and abu mitayn ("father of two hundred").

Israel

During the 1948 war, the Egyptian army occupied a large part of the Gaza region including Majdal. Over the next few months, the town was subjected to Israeli air-raids and shelling. All but about 1,000 of the town's residents were forced to leave by the time it was captured by Israeli forces as a sequel to Operation Yoav on 4 November 1948. General Yigal Allon ordered the expulsion of the remaining Palestinians but the local commanders did not do so and the Arab population soon recovered to more than 2,500 due mostly to refugees slipping back and also due to the transfer of Palestinians from nearby villages. Most of them were elderly, women, or children. During the next year or so, the Palestinians were held in a confined area surrounded by barbed wire, which became commonly known as the "ghetto". Moshe Dayan and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion were in favor of expulsion, while Mapam and the Israeli labor union Histadrut objected. The government offered the Palestinians positive inducements to leave, including a favorable currency exchange, but also caused panic through night-time raids. The first group was deported to the Gaza Strip by truck on 17 August 1950 after an expulsion order had been served. The deportation was approved by Ben-Gurion and Dayan over the objections of Pinhas Lavon, secretary-general of the Histadrut, who envisioned the town as a productive example of equal opportunity. By October 1950, twenty Palestinian families remained, most of whom later moved to Lydda or Gaza. According to Israeli records, in total 2,333 Palestinians were transferred to the Gaza Strip, 60 to Jordan, 302 to other towns in Israel, and a small number remained in Ashkelon. Lavon argued that this operation dissipated "the last shred of trust the Arabs had in Israel, the sincerity of the State's declarations on democracy and civil equality, and the last remnant of confidence the Arab workers had in the Histadrut." Acting on an Egyptian complaint, the Egyptian-Israel Mixed Armistice Commission ruled that the Palestinians transferred from Majdal should be returned to Israel, but this was not done.

Ashkelon was formally granted to Israel in the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Re-population of the recently vacated Arab dwellings by Jews had been official policy since at least December 1948, but the process began slowly. The Israeli national plan of June 1949 designated al-Majdal as the site for a regional urban center of 20,000 people. From July 1949, new immigrants and demobilized soldiers moved to the new town, increasing the Jewish population to 2,500 within six months. These early immigrants were mostly from Yemen, North Africa, and Europe. During 1949, the town was renamed Migdal Gaza, and then Migdal Gad. Soon afterwards it became Migdal Ashkelon. The city began to expand as the population grew. In 1951, the neighborhood of Afridar was established for Jewish immigrants from South Africa, and in 1953 it was incorporated into the city. The current name Ashkelon was adopted and the town was granted local council status in 1953. In 1955, Ashkelon had more than 16,000 residents. By 1961, Ashkelon ranked 18th among Israeli urban centers with a population of 24,000. This grew to 43,000 in 1972 and 53,000 in 1983. In 2005, the population was more than 106,000.

On 1–2 March 2008, rockets fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip (some of them Grad rockets) hit Ashkelon, wounding seven, and causing property damage. Mayor Roni Mahatzri stated that "This is a state of war, I know no other definition for it. If it lasts a week or two, we can handle that, but we have no intention of allowing this to become part of our daily routine." In March 2008, 230 buildings and 30 cars were damaged by rocket fire on Ashkelon. On 12 May 2008, a rocket fired from the northern Gazan city of Beit Lahiya hit a shopping mall in southern Ashkelon, causing significant structural damage. According to The Jerusalem Post, four people were seriously injured and 87 were treated for shock. Fifteen people suffered minor to moderate injuries as a result of the collapsed structure. Southern District Police chief Uri Bar-Lev believed the Grad-model Katyusha rocket was manufactured in Iran.

In March 2009, a Qassam rocket hit a school, destroying classrooms and injuring two people.

In November 2014, the mayor, Itamar Shimoni, began a policy of discrimination against Arab workers, refusing to allow them to work on city projects to build bomb shelters for children. His discriminatory actions brought criticism from others, including Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat who likened the discrimination to the anti-Semitism experienced by Jews in Europe 70 years earlier.

On May 11, 2021, Hamas fired 137 rockets on Ashkelon killing 2 and injuring many others.

Panorama of modern Ashkelon

Urban development

In 1949 and 1950, three immigrant transit camps (ma'abarot) were established alongside Majdal (renamed Migdal) for Jewish refugees from Arab countries, Romania and Poland. Northwest of Migdal and the immigrant camps, on the lands of the depopulated Palestinian village al-Jura, entrepreneur Zvi Segal, one of the signatories of Israel's Declaration of Independence, established the upscale Barnea neighborhood.

A large tract of land south of Barnea was handed over to the trusteeship of the South African Zionist Federation, which established the neighborhood of Afridar. Plans for the city were drawn up in South Africa according to the garden city model. Migdal was surrounded by a broad ring of orchards. Barnea developed slowly, but Afridar grew rapidly. The first homes, built in 1951, were inhabited by new Jewish immigrants from South Africa and South America, with some native-born Israelis. The first public housing project for residents of the transit camps, the Southern Hills Project (Hageva'ot Hadromiyot) or Zion Hill (Givat Zion), was built in 1952.

Under a plan signed in October 2015, seven new neighborhoods comprising 32,000 housing units, a new stretch of highway, and three new highway interchanges will be built, turning Ashkelon into the sixth-largest city in Israel.

Economy

Ashkelon is the northern terminus for the Trans-Israel pipeline, which brings petroleum products from Eilat to an oil terminal at the port. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant is the largest in the world. The project was developed as a BOT (build–operate–transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran. In March 2006, it was voted "Desalination Plant of the Year" in the Global Water Awards.

Since 1992, Israel Beer Breweries has been operating in Ashkelon, brewing Carlsberg and Tuborg beer for the Israeli market. The brewery is owned by the Central Bottling Company, which has also held the Israeli franchise for Coca-Cola products since 1968.

Arak Ashkelon, a local brand of arak, is operating since 1925 and distributed throughout Israel.

Education

The city has 19 elementary schools, and nine junior high and high schools. The Ashkelon Academic College opened in 1998, and now hosts thousands of students. Harvard University operates an archaeological summer school program in Ashkelon.

Landmarks

Ashkelon National Park

The ancient site of Ashkelon is now a national park on the city's southern coast. The walls that encircled the city are still visible, as well as Canaanite earth ramparts. The park contains Byzantine, Crusader and Roman ruins. The largest dog cemetery in the ancient world was discovered in Ashkelon.

Bath Houses

In 1986 ruins of 4th- to 6th-century baths were found in Ashkelon. The bath houses are believed to have been used for prostitution. The remains of nearly 100 mostly male infants were found in a sewer under the bathhouse, leading to conjectures that prostitutes had discarded their unwanted newborns there.

Religious sites

Places of worship

The remains of a 4th-century Byzantine church with marble slab flooring and glass mosaic walls can be seen in the Barnea Quarter. Remains of a synagogue from this period have also been found.

Maqam al-Imam al-Husayn

An 11th-century mosque, Maqam al-Imam al-Husayn, a site of pilgrimage for both Sunnis and Shiites,: 185–186  which had been built under the Fatimids by Badr al-Jamali and where tradition held that the head of Mohammad's grandson Hussein ibn Ali was buried, was blown up by the IDF under instructions from Moshe Dayan as part of a broader programme to destroy mosques in July 1950. The area was subsequently redeveloped for a local Israeli hospital, Barzilai. After the site was re-identified on the hospital grounds, funds from Mohammed Burhanuddin, leader of a Shi'a Ismaili sect based in India, were used to construct a marble mosque, which is visited by Shi'ite pilgrims from India and Pakistan.

Shrines

A domed structure housing the 13th-century tomb of Sheikh Awad sits atop a hill overlooking Ashkelon's northern beaches.

A Roman burial tomb two kilometres north of Ashkelon Park was discovered in 1937. There are two burial tombs, a painted Hellenistic cave and a Roman cave. The Hellenistic cave is decorated with paintings of nymphs, water scenes, mythological figures and animals.

Museums

Ashkelon Khan and Museum contains archaeological finds, among them a replica of Ashkelon's Canaanite silver calf, whose discovery was reported on the front page of The New York Times.

The Outdoor Museum near the municipal cultural center displays two Roman burial coffins made of marble depicting battle and hunting scenes, and famous mythological scenes.

Ashkelon marina breakwater

Others

The Ashkelon Marina, located between Delila and Bar Kochba beaches, offers a shipyard and repair services. Ashkeluna is a water-slide park on Ashkelon beach.

Health care

Ashkelon and environs is served by the Barzilai Medical Center, established in 1961. It was built in place of Hussein ibn Ali's 11th-century mosque, a center of Muslim pilgrimages, destroyed by the Israeli army in 1950. Situated six miles (9.7 km) from Gaza, the hospital has been the target of numerous Qassam rocket attacks, sometimes as many as 140 over one weekend. The hospital plays a vital role in treating wounded soldiers and terror victims. A new rocket and missile-proof emergency room is under construction.

Demographics

In the early years, the city was primarily settled by Mizrahi Jews, who fled to Israel after being expelled from Muslim lands. Today, Mizrahi Jews still constitute the majority of the population. In the early 1950s, many South African Jews settled in Ashkelon, establishing the Afridar neighbourhood. They were followed by an influx of immigrants from the United Kingdom. During the 1990s, the city received additional arrivals of Ethiopian Jews and Russian Jews.

Culture and sports

The Ashkelon Sports Arena opened in 1999. The "Jewish Eye" is a Jewish world film festival that takes place annually in Ashkelon. The festival marked its seventh year in 2010. The Breeza Music Festival has been held yearly in and around Ashkelon's amphitheatre since 1992. Most of the musical performances are free. Israel Lacrosse operates substantial youth lacrosse programs in the city and recently hosted the Turkey men's national team in Israel's first home international in 2013.

Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Askalon ("In Ashkelon's Black Whale inn") is a traditional German academic commercium song that describes a drinking binge staged in the ancient city.

Twin towns – sister cities

Ashkelon is twinned with:

• Côte Saint-Luc, Quebec, Canada
• Grodno, Belarus
• Xinyang, China
• Iquique, Chile
• Aix-en-Provence, France
• Vani, Georgia
• Kutaisi, Georgia
• Aviano, Italy
• Berlin-Pankow, Germany
• Sopot, Poland
• Entebbe, Uganda
• Portland, Oregon, United States
• Baltimore, Maryland, United States
• Sacramento, California, United States

Kutaisi (/kuːˈtaɪsiː/,[3] Georgian: ქუთაისი [khuthɑisi]) is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the third-most populous city in Georgia, traditionally, second in importance, after the capital city of Tbilisi. Situated 221 kilometres (137 miles) west of Tbilisi, on the Rioni River, it is the capital of the western region of Imereti.

Historically one of the major cities of Georgia, it served as political center of Colchis in the Middle Ages as capital of the Kingdom of Abkhazia and Kingdom of Georgia and later as the capital of the Kingdom of Imereti. From October 2012 to December 2018, Kutaisi was the seat of the Parliament of Georgia as an effort to decentralise the Georgian government.

of Abkhazia and Ki

ngdom of Georgia and later as the capital of the Kingdom of Imereti. From October 2012 to December 2018, Kutaisi was the seat of the Parliament of Georgia as an effort to decentralise the Georgian government.

Later, it was the capital of the kingdom of Lazica until being occupied briefly by the Arabs. An Arab incursion into western Georgia was repelled by Abkhazians jointly with Lazic and Iberian allies in 736, towards c.786, Leon II won his full independence from Byz

antineLater, it was the capital of the kingdom of Lazica until being occupied briefly by the Arabs. An Arab incursion into western Georgia was repelled by Abkhazians jointly with Lazic and Iberian allies in 736, towards c.786, Leon II won his full independence from Byzantine and transferred his capital to Kutaisi, thus unifying Lazica and Abasgia via a dynastic union. The latter led the unification of the Georgian monarchy in the 11th century.

Kutaisi (/kuːˈtaɪsiː/,[3] Georgian: ქუთაისი [kʰutʰɑisi]) is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the third-most populous city in Georgia, traditionally, second in importance, after the capital city of Tbilisi. Situated 221 kilometres (137 miles) west of Tbilisi, on the Rioni River, it is the capital of the western region of Imereti.

Historically one of the major cities of Georgia, it served as political center of Colchis in the Middle Ages as capital of the Kingdom

of Abkhazia and Ki

ngdom of Georgia and later as the capital of the Kingdom of Imereti. From October 2012 to December 2018, Kutaisi was the seat of the Parliament of Georgia as an effort to decentralise the Georgian government.

History

Archaeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the Colchis in the sixth to fifth centuries BC. It is believed that, in Argonautica, a Greek epic poem about Jason and the Argonauts and their journey to Colchis, author Apollonius Rhodius considered Kutaisi their final destination as well as the residence of King Aeëtes.

Later, it was the capital of the kingdom of Lazica until being occupied briefly by the Arabs. An Arab incursion into western Georgia was repelled by Abkhazians jointly with Lazic and Iberian allies in 736, towards c.786, Leon II won his full independence from Byz

antine and transferred his capital to Kutaisi, thus unifying Lazica and Abasgia via a dynastic union. The latter led the unification of the Georgian monarchy in the 11th century.

From 1008 to 1122, Kutaisi served as the capital of the United Kingdom of Georgia, and, from the 15th century until 1810, it was the capital of the Imeretian Kingdom. In 1508, the city was conquered by Selim I, who was the son of Bayezid II, the sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

During the 17th century, Imeretian kings made many appeals to Russian Empire to help them in their struggle for independence from the Ottomans. All these appeals were ignored as Russia did not want to spoil relations with Turkey. Only in the reign of Catherine the Great, in 1768, were troops of general Gottlieb Heinrich Totleben sent to join the forces of King Heraclius II of Georgia, who hoped to reconquer the Ottoman-held southern Georgian lands, with Russian help. Totleben helped King Solomon I of Imereti to recover his capital, Kutaisi, on August 6, 1770.

Finally, the Russian-Turkish wars ended in 1810 with the annexation of the Imeretian Kingdom by the Russian Empire. The city was the capital of the Kutais Governorate, which included much of west Georgia. In March 1879, the city was the site of a blood libel trial that attracted attention all over Russia; the ten accused Jews were acquitted.

Kutaisi was a major industrial center before Georgia's independence on 9 April 1991. Independence was followed by the economic collapse of the country, and, as a result, many inhabitants of Kutaisi have had to work abroad. Small-scale trade prevails among the rest of the population.

In 2011, Mikheil Saakashvili, the president of Georgia, signed a constitutional amendment relocating the parliament to Kutaisi. On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated the new Parliament building in Kutaisi. This was done in an effort to decentralise power and shift some political control closer to Abkhazia, although it has been criticised as marginalising the legislature, and also for the demolition of a Soviet War Memorial formerly at the new building's location. The subsequent government of the Georgian Dream passed a new constitution that moved the parliament back to Tbilisi, effective from January 2019.

Culture

Landmarks

The landmark of the city is the ruined Bagrati Cathedral, built by Bagrat III, king of Georgia, in the early 11th century. The Gelati Monastery a few km east of the city, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. One of the famous churches in Georgia is Motsameta monastery. It is named after two saints, brothers David and Constantine. They were the Dukes of Margveti, and were martyred by Arab invaders in the 8th century. Besides the churches, there are other places of note such as: Sataplia Cave, where one can observe footprints of dinosaurs; ruins of Geguti Palace, which was one of the residences of Georgian monarchs; "Okros Chardakhi" – Georgian Kings’ Palace; the Pantheon, where many notable citizens are buried; The Kutaisi Synagogue which was built in 1885.

Museums and other cultural institutions

• Kutaisi State Historical Museum
• Kutaisi Museum of Sport
• Kutaisi Museum of Martial Art
• Museum of Zakaria Paliashvili
• Kutaisi State Historical Archive
• Kutaisi State Scientific-Universal Library
• Akaki Tsereteli State University

Theatres and cinema

• Kutaisi Lado Meskhishvili State Academic Theatre
• Kutaisi Meliton Balanchivadze State Opera House
• Kutaisi Iakob Gogebashvili State Puppet Theatre
• Cinema and Entertaining Center “Suliko”
• Hermann-Wedekind-Jugendtheater

Professional unions and public organizations

• Georgian Writers’ Union
• Georgian Painters’ Union
• Folk Palace

Media

Local newspapers include: Kutaisi, Imeretis Moabe, PS, Akhali Gazeti, and Kutaisuri Versia. Other publications include Chveneburebi, a journal published by the Ministry of Diaspora Issues, and Gantiadi, a scientific journal.

TV: "Rioni"; Radio: "Dzveli Kalaki" (old City)

Also nearly all of Georgia's national-level newspapers, journals and television stations have their representatives in Kutaisi.

Geography

Kutaisi is located along both banks of the Rioni River. The city lies at an elevation of 125–300 metres (410–984 feet) above sea level. To the east and northeast, Kutaisi is bounded by the Northern Imereti Foothills, to the north by the Samgurali Range, and to the west and the south by the Colchis Plain.

Landscape

Kutaisi is surrounded by deciduous forests to the northeast and the northwest. The low-lying outskirts of the city have a largely agricultural landscape. The city center has many gardens and its streets are lined with high, leafy trees. In the springtime, when the snow starts to melt in the nearby mountains, the storming Rioni River in the middle of the city is heard far beyond its banks.

Climate

Kutaisi has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with a well-defined on-shore/monsoonal flow (characteristic of the Colchis Plain) during the autumn and winter months. The summers are generally hot and relatively dry while the winters are wet and cool. The average annual temperature in the city is 14.8 °C (58.6 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of 5.4 °C (41.7 °F) while August is the hottest month with an average temperature of 24.7 °C (76.5 °F). The absolute minimum recorded temperature is −17.0 °C (1.4 °F) and the absolute maximum is 43.1 °C (109.6 °F).

Average annual precipitation is around 1,500 mm (59.06 in). Rain may fall in every season of the year. The city often experiences heavy, wet snowfall (snowfall of 30 cm / 12 in or more per single snowstorm is not uncommon) in the winter, but the snow cover usually does not last for more than a week. Kutaisi experiences powerful easterly winds in the summer which descend from the nearby mountains.

Administrative division

There are 12 administrative units in Kutaisi:

• Avtokarkhana
• Gamarjveba
• Gumati
• Vakisubani
• Kakhianouri
• Mukhnari
• Nikea
• Sapichkhia
• Sulkhan-Saba
• Ukimerioni
• City-museum
• Dzelkviani

Economy

Kutaisi has traditionally been an important industrial center in Georgia, but after the collapse of the Soviet Union most of the old manufacturing lines either stopped working or had to greatly reduce their operations. Nevertheless, the city continues to be an important regional center for the greater Imereti area, acting as a commercial hub for the surrounding countryside. In recent years, the city has started attracting more investment from various multinational corporations.

The Auto Mechanical Plant, originally established in 1945, is located in Kutaisi.

There are two free industrial zones in Kutaisi: The Kutaisi free industrial zone (Kutaisi FIZ) and the Hualing free industrial zone (Hualing FIZ). The Kutaisi FIZ was created in 2009 and was established on the initiative of Fresh Electric, an Egypt-based home appliances producer. The Hualing FIZ operates since 2015, and specializes in wood and stone processing, furniture and mattress production and metal construction. Both of the free industrial zones offer multiple incentives to investors such as tax exemptions and reduced barriers for trade.

In 2019, German solar panel manufacturer AE Solar opened a new, fully automated manufacturing line in Kutaisi. With a total output of 500 MW per year it is the largest solar panel factory under one roof in Europe. During the same year Changan Automobile announced plans to construct an electric car factory in Kutaisi, with an annual production capacity of up to 40,000 vehicles. The company plans to export annually about 20,000 cars to the EU. The factory plans to employ about 3,000 people.

Sport

Kutaisi has a great tradition in sports, with many famous sports clubs. FC Torpedo Kutaisi has participated on the highest level of the Soviet Union football league. After Georgia achieved independence, it won many domestic and international titles. RC AIA Kutaisi won the Soviet Championship several times in rugby, and after independence, national championships and cups. The women's football club FC Martve takes part at the 2017–18 UEFA Women's Champions League qualifying round after becoming champion in the Georgia women's football championship in 2016. Kutaisi also has an influential basketball club BC Kutaisi 2010, 2016 Champion of the Georgian Superliga, which plays its home games at the Kutaisi Sport Palas.

Transport

Airport

David the Builder Kutaisi International Airport (IATA: KUT, ICAO: UGKO) is an airport located 14 km (8.70 mi) west of Kutaisi. It is one of three international airports currently in operation in Georgia.

Railway

Kutaisi has 2 main railway stations, along with multiple smaller ones. Direct inter-city, as well as suburban railway services, are provided to Tbilisi (Central) and other major cities across the country. The rail operator on all lines is Georgian Railways.

Local celebrations

"Kutaisoba" is the most important holiday in Kutaisi. It is celebrated on the second of May. On this day the population of Kutaisi crowds into the central park, with their children and celebrate together.

Some people make masks and there are many kinds of performances. Also, children sell chamomiles. It is an old tradition, in the past ladies collected money for poor people, so today children also collect money for them.

On Kutaisoba one can see traditional Georgian dances and can hear folk music. Also, it is an old tradition to go to the forest, which is near Kutaisi. Families barbecue and play games. On this day, people wear traditional clothes, choxa. There is a tradition of writing lyrics that have been written by writers from Kutaisi, and then airplanes throw them from the sky. There is also a competition in different kinds of martial arts.

Notable natives

• Aeëtes – King of Kingdom of Colchis
• Bagrat III – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 975–1014
• George I – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1014–1027
• Bagrat IV – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1027–1072
• George II – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1072–1089
• David IV – King of united Kingdom of Georgia in 1089–1125
• Veriko Anjaparidze – Georgian actress
• Revaz Gabriadze – cinematographer, writer, director, production designer
• Niko Nikoladze (1843–1928) – Georgian public figure
• Meliton Balanchivadze (1862–1937) – Georgian composer
• Zakaria Paliashvili (1871–1933) – Georgian composer
• Iakob Nikoladze (1876–1951) – Georgian sculptor, designer of the previous state flag of Georgia.
• Władysław Raczkiewicz (1885–1947) – the first president of the Polish government-in-exile, 1939–1947
• Joseph Orbeli (1887–1961) – orientalist
• David Kakabadze (1889–1952) – Georgian painter
• Victor Dolidze (1890–1933) – Georgian composer
• Petre Otskheli (1907–1937) Georgian modernist set and costume designer
• Otar Korkia (1923–2005) – Georgian basketball player and coach (Olympic silver medalist)
• Dodo Chichinadze (1924–2009) – Georgian actress
• Revaz Dzodzuashvili (b. 1945) – Georgian football player, World Cup 1966 bronze medalist
• Zurab Sakandelidze (b. 1945) – Georgian basketball player, Olympic champion
• Mikheil Korkia (b. 1948) – Georgian basketball player, Olympic champion
• Meir Pichhadze (1955–2010) – Israeli painter, Kutaisi native
• Tengiz Sulakvelidze (b. 1956) – Georgian football player, played in 1982 FIFA World Cup, Euro 1988 silver medalist
• Ramaz Shengelia (1957–2012) – Georgian football player, played in 1982 FIFA World Cup
• Maia Chiburdanidze (b. 1961) – the seventh Women's World Chess Champion
• Besik Khamashuridze (b. 1977) – Georgian rugby player, won 53 caps, RC Aia Kutaisi player-coach
• David Khakhaleishvili (b. 1971) – Olympic champion in Wrestling
• Katie Melua (b. 1984) – A Georgian-British singer and songwriter that was born and grew up here.
• Nika Sichinava (b. 1994) – Georgian football player, played for Yunist Chernihiv and FC Inhulets Petrove.

International relations

Twin towns – sister cities

• Ashkelon, Israel
• Columbia, United States
• Dnipro, Ukraine
• Ganja, Azerbaijan
• Gomel, Belarus
• Karşıyaka, Turkey
• Kharkiv, Ukraine
• Laiwu (Jinan), China
• Lviv, Ukraine
• Mykolaiv, Ukraine
• Nanchang, China
• Newport, Wales, UK
• Poznań, Poland
• Sumy, Ukraine
• Szombathely, Hungary
• Ungheni, Moldova
• Valka, Latvia
• Zhytomyr, Ukraine

Kronstadt (Russian: Кроншта́дт, romanized: Kronštádt [krɐnˈʂtat]), also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt or Kronštádt (from

German: Krone for "crown" and Stadt for

"city") is a Russian port city in

Kronshtadtsky District of the federal city of Saint Petersburg, located on Kotlin Island, 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Saint Petersburg, near the head of the Gulf of Finland. It is linked to the former Russian capital by a combination levee-causeway-seagate, the St Petersburg Dam, part of the city's flood defences, which also acts as road access to Kotlin island from the mainland. Founded in the early 18th century by Peter the Great, it became an important international centre of commerce whose trade role was later eclipsed by its strategic significance as the primary maritime defence outpost of the former Russian capital. The main base of the Russian Baltic Fleet was located in Kronstadt, guarding the approaches to Saint Petersburg. In March 1921, the island city was the site of the Kronstadt rebellion.

The historic centre of the city and its fortifications are part of the World Heritage Site that is Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments.

Kronstadt has been a place of pilgrimage for Orthodox Christians for many years due to the memory of Saint John of Kronstadt.

History

Foundation

Kronstadt was founded by Peter the Great, whose Imperial Russian forces took the island of Kotlin from the Swedes during the Great Northern War in 1703. The first fortifications were inaugu

rated on 18 May [O.S. 7 May] 1704. These fortifications, known as Kronshlot [ru] (Кроншлот), were constructed very quickly. During the winter, the Gulf of Finland freezes over completely. Under the command of Governor-general Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, workers used thousands of frames (caissons) made of logs from evergreen trees filled with stones which were moved by horses across the frozen sea, and placed in cuttings made in the ice. Thus, several new small islands were created, and forts were erected on them, virtually closing access to Saint-Petersburg by sea. Only two narrow navigable channels remained, with forts guarding them. One of the first governors of Kronstadt was a veteran of the Royal Scots Navy, Admiral Thomas Gordon who was a refugee in Russia from the Scottish union with England and became chief commander of the port of Kronstadt from 1727 to 1741. Just as Kronstadt became populated and fortified, it attracted merchants from maritime powers most notably, the Dutch, the British and the Germans through the old Hanse connections. The community of British merchants or "factors" came to be known as the English Factory, despite the fact that many of them were Scots. They settled both in Kronstadt and in St Petersburg itself and for a time dominated both inward and outward trade, especially in the reign of Catherine the Great. They became an integral part of British trade and foreign policy through the Board of Trade in London. A number of the British settlers became naturalised Russians. Trading alliances were sharply interrupted by the outbreak of the Crimean War (1854).

Kronstadt was thoroughly refortified in the 19th century. The old three-decker forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal defences and had resisted the Anglo-French fleets during the Crimean War, became of secondary importance. From the plans of Eduard Totleben a new fort, Constantine, and four batteries were constructed (1856–1871) to defend the principal approach, and seven batteries to cover the shallower northern channel. All these fortifications were low and thickly armoured earthworks with heavy Krupp guns on their ramparts. The city is surrounded by an enceinte.

In summer 1891, the French fleet was officially received in Kronstadt. It was a first step towards the forthcoming Franco-Russian Alliance.

Russian Civil War

During the Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) riots of the February revolution, the sailors of Petrograd joined the revolution and executed their officers, thus gaining a reputation as dedicated revolutionaries. During the civil war, the sailors participated on the red side, until 1921, when they rebelled against Bolshevik rule.

Kronstadt with its supporting forts and minefields was key in protecting Petrograd from foreign forces. Despite this, the cruiser Oleg was torpedoed and sunk by a small motor boat after participating in the bombardment of Krasnaya Gorka fort that had revolted against the Bolsheviks. This was followed on August 18, 1919, by a raid of seven Royal Navy Coastal Motor Boats inside the harbour of Kronstadt itself, damaging the Soviet battleships Petropavlovsk and Andrei Pervozvanny, and sinking a submarine supply ship, the Pamiat Azova.

Kronstadt Rebellion

In 1921, a group of naval officers and men, together with soldiers and civilian supporters, rebelled against the Bolshevik government in Soviet Kronstadt. The garrison had previously been a centre of major support for the Bolsheviks, and throughout the Civil War of 1917–1921, the naval forces at Kronstadt had been at the vanguard of the main Bolshevik attacks. Their demands included freedom of speech, the end of deportation to work camps, a change in Soviet war politics, and liberation of the soviets (workers' councils) from "party control". After brief negotiations, Leon Trotsky (then the Minister of War in the Soviet Government, and the leader of the Red Army) responded by sending the army to Kronstadt, along with the Cheka. The uprising was thus suppressed following a massacre.

Interwar and World War II

In the late 1930s, the fortified city became the base of the Soviet Baltic Fleet. During that time it was an important training centre for the Soviet navy. The Kronstadt naval dockyard overhauled and repaired surface ships and submarines for the Baltic Fleet. All forts and batteries of the city were reconstructed.

At 23:37 on June 21, 1941, fleet operational readiness Number 1 was announced by Baltic Fleet Commander Vice Admiral V. Tributs on the order of the People's Commissar of the Navy Admiral N.G. Kuznetsov. Several hours later the first German aircraft began dropping mines into the canal outside Kronstadt. The duty officer, first lieutenant S. Kushnerev, ordered anti-aircraft batteries to open fire on enemy planes. Several aircraft were shot down or damaged. Twenty-seven German planes took part in the first attack, and three were destroyed by the anti-aircraft guns of the 1st Air Defence Regiment of the Baltic Fleet. This regiment was situated in the southern forts.

During World War II, Kronstadt was subject to several bombing raids by the Luftwaffe. In August 1941 the Luftwaffe began bombing Kronstadt repeatedly. The most notable bombing was Stuka ace Hans-Ulrich Rudel's sinking of the battleship Marat.

To prevent an enemy landing, 13 artillery batteries were established in Kronstadt with nine more batteries outside the city, on the island of Kotlin. The main lookout was located in the Naval Cathedral. Visual range reached 45 km (28 mi). The coastal defence forces of Kronstadt included two infantry regiments.

In late August, the Red Army in the Baltic States was in a critical situation. Tallinn, the main base of the fleet, was in danger and an order to relocate the fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt was given. By the time the Soviets had decided on a maritime evacuation of Tallinn, over 200 Soviet civilian and military vessels had been assembled in Tallinn harbour.

After the evacuation of Tallinn, a submarine subdivision had been organized in Kronstadt. By the end of 1941, 82 naval operations had taken place. Hitler was enraged, because Soviet submarines frequently disrupted military supplies of strategic materials from Sweden to Germany. The Germans tried to block the exit completely from the Gulf of Finland with anti-submarine nets and mines. Despite these efforts, the Soviet submariners continued to attack German ships. In 1942, 29 German vessels were sunk. Submarines cooperated with reconnaissance aircraft in searching for military targets.

Soviet submarines had broken through the mine barrages in the Gulf of Finland in 1942. To keep the Soviet submarine force away from Baltic shipping stronger efforts were planned. The minefields would be larger and in addition a double submarine net would be laid from Porkkala to Naissaar in Operation Walross. The blockade of the Gulf of Finland turned out to be 100% effective. But in 1944, when Finland signed a peace treaty with the Soviet Union, one of the conditions was that the Soviets could locate one naval base in Finland at Porkkala. Submarine warfare in the Baltic Sea reached its final stage after peace was reached with Finland.

The Baltic Fleet sent more than 125,000 people to serve on shore at the front. Eighty-three thousand people fought directly on the Leningrad Front. For the protection of Leningrad 10 brigades of naval infantry, four regiments, and more than 40 separate battalions and companies were formed in Kronstadt.

The Luftwaffe and German artillery sent thousands of bombs and shells onto the naval dockyard and the Arsenal factory. The German air raids in September 1941, damaged ships of the Baltic Fleet and the infrastructure of the naval dockyard. Several sections of the yard were destroyed, the docks were heavily bombed causing the death of dozens of workers and engineers. Nevertheless, the naval yard continued its work. Despite the siege, the workers persevered with their work, often working 18–20 hours a day.

Thanks to the power of the Kronstadt Fortress the destruction of Leningrad, then the main industrial and cultural centre of the Soviet Union, was successfully prevented. The honorary status of "City of Military Glory" was conferred on it by the President of the Russian Federation Dmitriy Medvedev on April 27, 2009, citing the "courage, endurance and mass heroism, exhibited by defenders of the city in the struggle for the freedom and independence of the Motherland".

Places of interest

The city of Kronstadt is built on level ground on the island and is thus exposed to flooding, most notably in 1824. The port is icebound for 140–160 days in the year, from the beginning of Decem

ber to April. A very large proportion of the inhabitants are sailors. On the south side of the city there are three harbours: the large western or merchant harbour, the western flank of which is formed by a great pier joining the fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on one side. The middle harbour was used chiefly for fitting out and repairing vessels. The eastern or military harbour was used for docking vessels of the Russian Navy. The Peter and Catherine Canals connected with the merchant and middle harbours across the city. Between them stood the old Italian Palace of Prince Menshikov, whose site was later occupied by a school for pilots. In the second half of the 18th century the building of the former Italian palace was used by various military training institutions. In 1771–1798 the Sea Cadet Corps was housed there before being transferred to St Petersburg. From 1798 to 1872 the Navigation School was situated in the former palace.

The Kronstadt tide gauge is situated near the former Italian palace. Sea level observations in Saint Petersburg began already in 1703. On Kotlin Island, the main naval fortress of the Russian Empire began observations in 1707. This monitoring was necessary because the water level of the Finnish Gulf could change considerably in a short time, creating problems for shipping. The annual flood also required close monitoring of the water level. The Kronstadt sea-gauge with the tide gauge pavilion is the zero level of the Baltic system of highs and lows. All depths and altitudes (even the heights of spacecraft) in Russia and some other countries of the former Russian Empire are measured according to the Kronstadt sea-gauge. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, said in 1967 that it was "the Hub of the Universe".

The modern city's most striking landmark is considered to be the enormous Naval Cathedral, dedicated to St Nicholas and built between 1908 and 1913 in Anchor Square which also contains many military memorials. The cathedral is regarded as the culmination of Russian Neo-Byzantine architecture. The Pyotrovsky Gardens is a park that surrounds the monument to Peter the Great who founded the city. There are a number of historic buildings, such as the Dutch Kitchen and the former Italian Palace, that recall the city's mercantile and military past.

Among other public buildings are the Naval Hospital, the British Seamen's Hospital (established in 1867), the Civic Hospital, the Admiralty (founded in 1785), the arsenal, dockyards and foundries, the School of Marine Engineering, and the English Church.

The Kronstadt port was once considered the most fortified port in the world. It still retains some of its old "forts" on small fortified artificial islands. Originally, there were 22 such forts, situated in line with the southern and northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. Some fortifications were located inside the city itself and one was on the western shore of Kronslot Island, on the other side of the main navigational channel.

The construction of the Saint Petersburg Dam led to some of the forts being demolished. The dam, a levee-causeway-Seagate combination also enabled Kronstadt and some of the forts being reached by land. Among the most important surviving forts are:

• Fort Konstantin, the biggest in the Gulf of Finland
• Fort Rif on the western shore of the island; and the particularly well-preserved Fort Alexander I, "the Plague Fort"
• Fort Totleben, named after Eduard Totleben, the largest and the newest of the forts, built at the beginning of the 20th century.

There are daily bus and water tours to Kronstadt from Saint Petersburg.

Devotion to St. John of Kronstadt

The now demolished older St Andrew Cathedral (1817), once a prominent Kronstadt landmark, was destroyed on Communist orders in 1932. St John of Kronstadt, one of the most venerated Russian saints, served there as priest from 1855 to 1908.

Saint Petersburg Dam

The controversial dam that took 30 years to build (1980–2011) now links Kotlin island to the mainland from north and south, not only acts as part of the flood defences, but lets through shipping and completes the St Petersburg ring-road system, across the island. It is a feat of marine engineering consisting of a combination of levee-causeway and seagate. Its construction on the shoals of the Gulf of Finland involved the removal of some of the historic fortifications.

Twin towns – sister cities

Kronstadt is twinned with:

• Annapolis, United States
• Asipovichy, Belarus
• Changli County, China
• Dax, France
• Demre, Turkey
• Feodosia, Crimea
• Ii, Finland
• Kotka, Finland
• Lushan City, China
• Marostica, Italy
• Messina, Italy
• Mühlhausen, Germany
• Nafplio, Greece
• Narva-Jõesuu, Estonia
• Nordborg (Sønderborg), Denmark
• Oulu, Finland
• Oxelösund, Sweden
• Piła, Poland
• Pinghu, China
• Põhja-Tallinn (Tallinn), Estonia
• Pudasjärvi, Finland
• Sumoto, Japan
• Toulon, France
• Zhongshan County, China

Binagadi (Binəqədi) raion (formerly Kirov)

Garadagh (Qaradağ) raion

Khatai (Xətai) raion

Khazar (Xəzər) raion (formerly Azizbekov)

Narimanov (Nərimanov) raion

Nasimi (Nəsimi) raion

Nizami raion

Pirallahi raion

Sabail raion

Sabunchu (Sabunçu) raion

Surakhany (Suraxanı) raion

Yasamal raion

• Binagadi (Binəqədi) raion (formerly Kirov)
• Garadagh (Qaradağ) raion
• Khatai (Xətai) raion
• Khazar (Xəzər) raion (formerly Azizbekov)
• Narimanov (Nərimanov) raion
• Nasimi (Nəsimi) raion
• Nizami raion
• Pirallahi raion
• Sabail raion
• Sabunchu (Sabunçu) raion
• Surakhany (Suraxanı) raion
• Yasamal raion

Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre

Azerbaijan State Academic Drama Theatre

Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun

Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)

Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators

Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy

Baku State Circus

"Oda" Theatre

Baku Marionette Theatre

Baku Municipal Theatre

Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre

Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre

Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov

"UNS" Theatre

"Yugh" Theatre

• Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre
• Azerbaijan State Academic Drama Theatre
• Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun
• Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)
• Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators
• Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy
• Baku State Circus
• "Oda" Theatre
• Baku Marionette Theatre
• Baku Municipal Theatre
• Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre
• Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre
• Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov
• "UNS" Theatre
• "Yugh" Theatre

National Museum of History

Nizami Museum of Literature

National Art Museum

Villa Petrolea

Baku Museum of Modern Art

The Museum Centre

Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography

Azerbaijan State Carpet Museum

Azerbaijan Museum of Geology

• National Museum of History
• Nizami Museum of Literature
• National Art Museum
• Villa Petrolea
• Baku Museum of Modern Art
• The Museum Centre
• Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography
• Azerbaijan State Carpet Museum
• Azerbaijan Museum of Geology

National Library of Azerbaijan

ANAS Central Library of Science

Presidential Library (former Library of the Armenian Philanthropic Society)

• National Library of Azerbaijan
• ANAS Central Library of Science
• Presidential Library (former Library of the Armenian Philanthropic Society)

ezeTeze Bey is the most popular hamam (traditional bath) in Baku. It was built in 1886 in the centre of Baku and in 2003 it was fully restored and modernised. Along with its modern amenities, Teze Bey features a swimming pool and architectural details inspired by Oriental, Russian and Finnish baths.

Baku Museum of Modern Art

Heydar Aliyev Centre

Yarat Contemporary Art Space (Azerbaijani: Yarat Müasir İncəsənət Mərkəzi)

• Baku Museum of Modern Art
• Heydar Aliyev Centre
• Yarat Contemporary Art Space (Azerbaijani: Yarat Müasir İncəsənət Mərkəzi)

Lotfi A. Zadeh, artificial intelligence researcher, founder of fuzzy mathematics, fuzzy set theory, and fuzzy logic

Physicist Lev Landau, Baku State University student, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962

Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space program

Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion

Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purges

Tofiq Bahramov, a Soviet footballer and football referee from Azerbaijan

Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL

Muslim Magomayev, one of the most famous singers of the USSR

Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award–winning cellist

Yuli Gusman, film director and actor, founder and CEO of the Nika Award

Natallia Arsiennieva, Belarusian playwright, poet and translator

Vladimir Menshov, Soviet and Russian actor and film director

Vladimir Dekanozov, Soviet senior state security operative and diplomat

Matvey Skobelev, Russian revolutionary and politician

Salatyn Asgarova, Azerbaijani journalist, National Hero of Azerbaijan

• Lotfi A. Zadeh, artificial intelligence researcher, founder of fuzzy mathematics, fuzzy set theory, and fuzzy logic
• Physicist Lev Landau, Baku State University student, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962
• Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space program
• Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion
• Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purges
• Tofiq Bahramov, a Soviet footballer and football referee from Azerbaijan
• Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL
• Muslim Magomayev, one of the most famous singers of the USSR
• Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award–winning cellist
• Yuli Gusman, film director and actor, founder and CEO of the Nika Award
• Natallia Arsiennieva, Belarusian playwright, poet and translator
• Vladimir Menshov, Soviet and Russian actor and film director
• Vladimir Dekanozov, Soviet senior state security operative and diplomat
• Matvey Skobelev, Russian revolutionary and politician
• Salatyn Asgarova, Azerbaijani journalist, National Hero of Azerbaijan

Dakar, Senegal

Naples, Italy

Basra, Iraq

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands, United States

Houston, United States

Bordeaux, France

Tabriz, Iran

İzmir, Turkey

Vũng Tàu, Vietnam

Honolulu County, United States

Sivas, Turkey

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Kyiv, Ukraine

Haifa, Israel

• Dakar, Senegal
• Naples, Italy
• Basra, Iraq
• Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands, United States
• Houston, United States
• Bordeaux, France
• Tabriz, Iran
• İzmir, Turkey
• Vũng Tàu, Vietnam
• Honolulu County, United States
• Sivas, Turkey
• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• Kyiv, Ukraine
• Haifa, Israel

Mainz, Germany

• Mainz, Germany

Tomar (Portuguese pronunciation: [tuˈmaɾ] (audio speaker iconlisten)), also known in English as Thomar, is a city and a municipality in the Santarém district of Portugal. The town proper

has a population of about 20,000. The municipality population in 2011 was 40,677, in an area of 351.20 km2 (135.60 sq mi).

The town of Tomar was created inside the walls of the Convento de Cristo, constructed under the orders of Gualdim de Pais, the fourth Grand Master of the Knights Templar of Portugal in the late 12th century.

Tomar was the last Templar town to be commissioned for construction and one of Portugal's historical jewels. The town was especially important in the 15th century when it was a center of Portuguese overseas expansion under Henry the Navigator, the Grand Master of the Order of Christ, successor organiz

ation to the Knights Templar in Portugal.

Geography

Tomar lies in the most fertile region of Portugal, and one of the most fertile in the whole of the Iberian Peninsula: the Ribatejo ("by the river Tagus") meadows. It is located in the district of Santarém. The predominant landscape is agricultural, consisting of olive, pine and fig trees.

The seat of the municipality is the city of Tomar, which comprises the parishes of Santa Maria dos Olivais and São João Batista. Tomar is also the capital of the Médio Tejo (Mid-Tagus river) region.

The Nabão River cuts across what was the ancient city of Nabantia: its inhabitants are called Nabantinos.

Parishes

Administratively, the municipality is divided into 11 civil parishes (freguesias):

• Além da Ribeira e Pedreira
• Asseiceira
• Carregueiros
• Casais e Alviobeira
• Madalena e Beselga
• Olalhas
• Paialvo
• Sabacheira
• São Pedro de Tomar
• Tomar (São João Baptista) e Santa Maria dos Olivais
• Serra e Junceira

History

Under the modern city lies the Roman city of Sellium. After the conquest of the region from the Moors in the Portuguese Reconquista, the land was granted in 1159 as a fief to the Order of the

Knights Templar. In 1160, Gualdim Pais, the Order's Grand master in Portugal and Tomar's somewhat mythical founder, laid the first stone of the Castle and Convent of the Knights Templar that would become the headquarters of the Order in Portugal.

Local traditional legends preach that the choice was for mystical reasons and by divine inspiration, and from practices by the Grand Master of geomancy, based on exercises taken from luck and predestination. Reinforcing this magical view is the setting of the site among a small chain of seven elevations (lugar dos sete montes), which became known as the city of seven hills, as the seven hills of Jerusalem, the seven hills of Rome or the seven columns of Constantinople.

The foral or feudal contract was granted in 1162 by the Grand Master to the people. The Templars ruled from Tomar a vast region of central Portugal which they pledged to defend from Moorish attacks and raids. Like many lords of the unpopulated former frontier region of central Portugal, the villagers were given relatively liberal conditions in comparison with those of the northern regions of Portugal, in order to attract new immigrants. Those inhabitants who could sustain a horse were obliged to pay military service in return for privileges. They were not allowed the title of Knight which was reserved to the Templars. Women were also admitted to the Order, although they did not fight.

In 1190 Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, a Almohad caliph, and his army attacked Tomar. However the crusader Knights and their 72-year-old leader, Gualdim Pais, kept them at bay. A plaque commemorates this bloody battle at the Porta do Sangue at the Castelo Templário (Castle of Tomar).

In 1314, under pressure from the Pope Clement V, the order was suppressed. Philip IV of France, who owed the Templars huge debts, held the pope a virtual prisoner and coerced him to suppress the order on bases of false accusations and forced confessions. The Order was suppressed in most of Europe and its holdings were to be transferred to the Knights Hospitalers. Instead, King Dinis negotiated the transfer of the Order's possessions and personnel in Portugal to a newly created Order of Christ. This Order moved in 1319 to Castro Marim, but in 1356 it returned to Tomar.

In the 15th century and thereafter, the (cleric) Grand Master of the Order was nominated by the Pope and the (lay) Master or Governor by the King, instead of being elected by the monks. Henry the Navigator was made the Governor of the Order, and it is believed that he used the resources and knowledge of the Order to succeed in his enterprises in Africa and in the Atlantic. The Order of Christ Cross was painted in the sails of the caravels that crossed the seas, and the Catholic missions in the new lands were under the authority of the Tomar clerics until 1514.

Henry, enriched by his overseas enterprises, was the first ruler to ameliorate the buildings of the Convento de Cristo since its construction by Gualdim Pais. He also ordered dams to be built to control the Nabão River and swamps to be drained. This allowed the burgeoning town to attract more settlers. Henry ordered the new streets to be designed in a rational, geometrical fashion, as they can still be seen today.

In 1438, King Duarte, who had fled Lisbon because of the Black Death, died here.

Just after 1492 with the Expulsion of Jews from Spain, the town increased further with Jewish refugee artisans and traders. The very large Jewish minority dynamized the city with new trades and skills. Their experience was vital in the success of the new trade routes with Africa. The original synagogue still stands.

In the reign of Manuel I of Portugal the convent took its final form within the Manueline renaissance style. With the growing importance of the town as master of Portugal's overseas empire, the leadership of the Order was granted to the King by the Pope.

However, under pressure from the monarchs of Spain, the King soon proclaimed by edict that all the Jews remaining within the territory of Portugal would be after a short period considered Christians, although simultaneously he forbade them to leave, fearing that the exodus of Jewish men of knowledge and capital would harm Portugal's burgeoning commercial empire. Jews were largely undisturbed as nominal Christians for several decades, until the establishment of a Tribunal of the Portuguese Inquisition by the initiative of the clergy in the town. Under persecution, wealthier Jews fled, while most others were forced to convert.

Hundreds of both Jews and New Christians were arrested, tortured and about 1,000 were executed in autos da fé, in a frenzy of persecution that peaked around 1550. Many others (c. 38,000) were expropriated of their property or penance. Jewish ascendancy, more than Jewish religion, together with personal wealth determined whom would be persecuted, since the expropriations reverted to the institution of the Inquisition itself. With the persecution of its merchants and professionals Tomar lost most of its relevance as a trading centre. New Christian names among the inhabitants are very common today.

In 1581 the city was the seat of the Portuguese Cortes (Feudal Parliament) which acclaimed the King of Spain Felipe II as Portugal's Filipe I.

During the 18th century Tomar was one of the first regions of Portugal to develop industry. In the reign of Maria I, with royal support, a textile factory of Jácome Ratton was established against the opposition of the Order. The hydraulic resources of the river Nabão were used to supply energy to this and many other factories, namely paper factories, foundries, glassworks, silks and soaps.

Tomar was occupied by the French during the Napoleonic invasions, against which it rebelled. The Duke of Wellington, with his Portuguese and English troops, liberated the city afterwards.

In 1834 all the religious orders, including the Order of Christ, were disbanded.

International relations

Tomar is twinned with:

• Emden, Germany