Colonization of Mars

The colonization or settlement of Mars has received interest from public space agencies and private corporations and has been extensively explored in science fiction writing, film, and art. This has included interest from various companies and government space agencies. Part of the ambition to colonize Mars iscomes from the belief it could help accelerate the evolution of the human species, or at least the technology of the species, as potential colonists and later generations deal with the number of obstacles ofto living on Mars,. includingThese barriers include higher radiation, lower gravity, and a vastprofound change in lifestyle compared to life on Earth.

While the expectation is that the colonization of Mars will include humans, there are other suggested types of colonization suggested, such as robotic colonization, wherein which autonomous robots could mine the planet to provide water and fuel supplies for a potential colony or for commercial mining processes whichthat could make colonization commercially viable. Meanwhile, the plan for colonization put forward by SpaceX CEO Elon Musk is to build a colony or city of 1 million people on Mars by 2050, using 1000 Starships at three launches per day, to create a viable colony.

Mars is a cold, dead place with an atmosphere about 100 times thinner than Earth's. ThereOn Mars, there is a paltry amount of air on Mars, which is primarily composed of carbon dioxide, and the little atmosphere there is does almost nothing to protect the surface from the Sunsun's harmful radiation, and. theThe air pressure is extremely low, at 600 Pascals, or 0.6 percent of Earth's. Walking on the surface of Mars is considered similar to walking in the vacuum of space, resulting in a severe of the bends, including ruptured lungs, dangerously swollen skin and body tissue, and ultimately death.

The thin atmosphere does not retain heat at the surface, and the average temperature on Mars is -81 degrees Fahrenheit, with the temperature dropping as low as -195 degrees Fahrenheit. Mars also has less mass than Earth, at about 0.375 that of Earth, which means a 180-pound person on Earth would weigh 68 pounds on Mars, which would wreak havoc on human musculature, human bones, and human fertility. However, among the extraterrestrial bodies in the solar system, Mars possesses thelife-supporting raw materials requiredthat tohelp create and support life, or even a new branch of human civilization, which retains anthe interest in colonizing the planet.

Any potential colonists reaching Mars will only be able to carry so much water, and they will require a method for generating as much clean water as possible. The International Space Station (ISS) has tested and utilized programs for converting urine and sweat into drinkable water, but this method could not produce enough water in the quantities needed for the needs of a colony. One solution could include using robotics to drill the soil and extract water, from either ice deposits on or below the surface, and from rocks containing small amounts of water whichthat used to be in Mars''s oceans. This is based on the theory that soil from water-rich areas on Mars could be heated until the water is evaporated and extracted, but this method would have to be implemented in various places in order to produce the necessary minimum amount of water.

Potential colonists on Mars will need oxygen to breathe, which will includerequire the generation of new sources of oxygen once on the planet. One such solution, the Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE), has been tested on Mars as part of the mission of the Perseverance rover. MOXIE uses an electrolysis process to remove oxygen atoms from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, the low pressure of the planet means the ambient amounts of air floating into MOXIE's reactive core won't produce much oxygen, so the system uses a compressor to suck in nearby carbon dioxide and feed it into the electrolysis unit at Earth-like pressure.

Once there, a chemical catalyst operates at 800 degrees Celsius to rip away oxygen from each incoming CO2₂., Andand pairs of oxygen atoms combine to form stable diatomic oxygen, which exits with carbon monoxide. The MOXIE unit on the Perseverance rover is able to make about six grams of oxygen per hour, which is not enough for a single human to breathe. But it has been suggested as being possible to do at scale and produce enough for multiple humans, or a colony of humans.

Another possibility is to use low-temperature plasmas to decompose carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen. OxygenIn addition to breathing, oxygen is importantessential to allow colonistsreturning to breathe, but also to return at Earth, as many propulsion systems use liquid oxygen to launch a rocket, and. anyAny colony will need to generate enough oxygen on another planet in order to launch a spaceship from the surface.

The issue of the lack of gravity on Mars is one already being worked around on the ISS. Bones and muscles lose mass over time in zero- or low-gravity environments, and on the ISS, astronauts are required to do two hours of physical activity a day to prevent degradation. Even with this consistent resistance training, astronauts returning to Earth have had trouble walking and regaining their balance. For colonists on Mars, there would need to be a longer-term plan for dealing with the effects of reduced gravity and to ensure the colonists' bones and muscles, especially their hearts, can remain strong and healthy.

There are two types of radiation potential colonists of Mars need to worry about: solar energetic particles (SEPs) and galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). SEPs are radiation from the sun, which the Earth's magnetosphere protects its habitants from. Mars''s magnetosphere is much weaker, and this type of radiation could be a problem for potential colonists over time. GCRs are a byproduct of the remnants of a supernova. The Earth's atmosphere protects its habitants from this type of radiation, but with Mars''s weaker atmosphere, potential colonists would have to worry about this type of radiation as well.

Some believe the levels of radiation would beingresult in increased chances of cancer, neurological degeneration, and, ultimately, death. Whereas, other proponents of Mars colonization are not as concerned, and think it is a matter of proper shielding. Shielding is used to protect astronauts on the ISS, and it would require colonists to live in heavily-shielded settlements in low-elevation areas, or shelter in lava tubes. Either way, colonists would deal with radiation levels of radiation above what is considered safe. And even if adequately protected, long-term habitation of Mars and the increased radiation could bring unforeseen complications.

For colonists on Mars, energy production would be less of a concern than other of the concernsissues ofon the planet. With a lack of weather on the planet, solar panels could be placed almost anywhere humans settle, and they would be capable of generating almost constant energy, except in the case ofduring the intense dust storms whichthat cover parts of the Red Planet for weeks. During these periods, alternative energy whichproduction capabilities would requirebe therequired, colonyor there would need to have alternative energy production capabilities or else havebe enough energy storage facilities capable of running for those weeks.

Martian soil contains perchlorates, whichthat are toxic to humans. Any attempt to grow food on Mars would require the extraction of the perchlorates from the soil, and even once the soil was made safe, only certain vegetables are expected to be able to grow in the greenhouse conditions on Mars. For example, vegetables such as corn or carrots would probably will not be able to be grown, but spinach, garlic, and onions are expected to do well.

There are various concerns and questions about what laws or regulations may or may not apply on Mars. For example, the Outer Space Treaty is the main document that governs international cooperation and intercommunication around space and other celestial bodies. However, this does not regulate what life on a colony on Mars would look like. Generally, a colony on Mars will likelywould require a system of laws or regulations that potential colonists would be required to abide by, and whichthat would take precedence over other laws and regulations, such as those governing a country of origin.

There is a possibility of a small group of like-minded individuals with common values to work together without significant conflict or conflict of interests. However, as a colony grows and becomes more diverse, especially with respect to diverse customs, beliefs, traditions, and ways of thinking, whichthat makemay keepingkeep an unregulated or lawless colony from operating together. This can be especially important in a colony where there are many threats to human life, and the continuance of a colony can increase the potential complications involved in any kinds of disagreements.

This asks a set of fundamental questions around the governance and application of any laws in regards toregarding Mars colonization. The Outer Space Treaty does not preclude private companies from traveling to Mars, delivering payloads to Mars, or settling Mars; however, the treaty does prohibit potential settlers from launching weapons from Mars and prohibits them from defining land ownership. There have been efforts to develop an updated legislative system for the exploration and use of space resources aiming to go beyond the Outer Space Treaty.

In the case of any system of laws or regulations, there would have to be some kind of understanding of the limited resources, extreme social isolation, and uncertainty that a potential colonist would undergo, and it would require a more hierarchical and rigid structure to ensure the protection of the larger colony, and especially as the colony grewgrows.

When it comes to the colonization of Mars, there are some ethical considerations and issues, which can be separated into two different groups of questions, namely:

• Ethical considerations with respect to humans, bothhumans—both colonists and people of Earth
• Ethical considerations towards Mars itself, including possible extra-terrestrialextraterrestrial life

A strong case in favor of the colonization of Mars is the survival of humanity in the case of a global catastrophe that would make Earth no longer habitable. Having a distant outpost on Mars would allow humanity to escape those consequences and survive as a species. But history shows that no matter how responsible, colonists affect the environments they colonize. Despite the low chance of discovering intelligent life in space, there remains the possibility of discovering abiogenesis on Mars, and such a discovery would have tremendous scientific and philosophical significance, providing a second and potentially novel example of biochemistry and evolutionary history. This could even prove to be an ultimate proof that extra-terrestrialextraterrestrial life in higher forms is possible.

When it comes toRegarding the feasibility to reach Mars, the question is less one ofabout technological capability and is, rather, a question of money. Since humans reached the Moonmoon, important people and people in the positions to oversee future missions have promised trips to the Moonmoon and further. These have included people like President George H. W. Bush, President George W. Bush, President Barach Obama, and President Donald Trump. But in each case, the cost of a trip to the Moonmoon, let alone Mars, has tempered ambition. But, if the financial question waswere answered, the steps to reach and eventually colonize Mars would include the following:

NASA and commercial partners have developed spacecraft capable of journeying to Mars. For NASA, the new SLS combined with an Orion capsule is expected to allow astronauts to explore beyond the relative safety of the low Earth Orbitorbit. Although any long-duration mission is expected to include a habitation module to give the crew room to move around, the nine-month trip to Mars is expected to be both uncomfortable and boring. Apart from the risks of launch, during the transit to Mars, the crew will be exposed to damaging levels of radiation that can increase the crew members' risk of crew members developing cancer, and harmharming fertility. Further, landing on Mars will be a challenge, as the lack of atmosphere reduces the amount of drag that can be used to slow down a crew module or drone and requires different ideas for landing, including an inflatable heatshield designed by NASA to slow the spacecraft upon approach to the Mars surface, and to make a larger craft feasible.

Another important part of travel to and from Mars areis the propulsion systemssystem. A powerful enough propulsion system, with an efficient fuel source (such as nuclear or ionization, as some systems have proposed) could reduce the overall time it takes astronauts to travel between Earth and Mars regardless of the period the orbits are in between the two planets.

Having landed on Mars, there will be a need for air, water, food, and power to survive. In the short term, this could include reliance on supplies from Earth; but in the long term, any colony will need the capability and technology to produce their own. These concerns and possible solutions include the MOXIE unit on the Perseverance rover, even if it is at a hundredth of the scale needed for a human expedition. Further, there would be a need to build various other structures, such as future habitats in the case of any damage to existing habitats, to utilize the abundant supply of CO2₂ on the planet and for propellant production to help colonists move to and from the planet's surface, and other production processes that will be required to maintain habitats and make any necessary fixes on equipment, including metal processing and plastic production.

Self-sufficiency includes the need for water, especially for the subsistence of human life on the colony, and as part of the use of some typestype of propellant, such as hydrogen or oxygen-based propellant. One attempt to create a water collection process is the Mars Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) project, which has analyzed historical mission data from the various Mars missions in order to identify potential locations where the likelihood of water under the surface is greater than others. Such a location would allow future colonists to drill and have ready access to water.

Food production is another difficulty that any colony will have. Both, as the soil does not seem to be capable of growing edible food; while. thereThere are projects whichthat look to develop the necessary, although not necessarily appetizing, biology whichthat could subsist human life. As for power, this is expected to be fairly straightforward, with a mixture of fuel cells, nuclear batteries, and solar arrays. But, given the week-long duststormsdust whichstorms that ravage the planet's surface, these resources will need to be carefully managed.

There are challenges with governing anything, let alone an extraterrestrial colony. It is expected that early missions, especially those that involve space agencies, will run with a hierarchical command system. ButHowever, as partly explored above, as a colony on the planet grows and matures, there will be a need for a more democratic form of government, especially as a space colony is expected to be tyranny-prone. If a party were capable of seizing control of necessary resources, such as oxygen, they could use that to threaten consequences if not given their desired levels of power. A government would also need an economy and systems to maintain the habitat, and provide employment, health, childcare, social care, and education.

Any settlement on Mars would be living in the capsules they arrive in, perhaps with other capsules sent ahead of or after them, or after, to help augment the larger environment, and even include some inflatable domes to increase the usable space the settlers could use. However, as settlers would use local resources for water, food, or energy, these settlers could also use local materials to build a larger colony or spin-off colonies. This could include the use ofusing Martianmartian rock to bury habitats and shield from radiation, or to drilldrilling into the surface to form caves and utilize rock for building materials, and it could be possible topotentially extractextracting minerals for metals or glass. This has also led to ideas such as terraforming Mars to turn the planet from an airless and barren world into an oxygen-rich green and pleasant world with a functioning ecosystem.

Another part of an expansion of the Martianmartian colony would be the potential for the colonists to have children, to raise those childrenthem onin the colony, and establish a culture unique to, the planet over time, establish a culture unique to the planet. Some have suggested that a population of 2,000 would be sufficient to ensure the longer-term survival of the colony.

There are, according to who is asked, tens if not hundreds of potential Mars landing sites. At NASA workshops, researchers have debated the strengths and weaknesses of the various of these landing sites, as any landing site would likely end up being the site of a colony. And what is known about any potential landing site continues to grow as more discoveries are made by passing satellites and surface rovers. And theThe ideal site would provide future colonists with a chance to shelter from the harsh planet's harsh conditions of the planet and closeprovide proximity to scientific or resource jackpots that can help them survive.

For each placelocation, there are often thetwo main two questions asked are: which place enables scientists to make the most discoveries? And which place allows engineers the best chance of landing and moving safely? The table below shows potential landing sites used in the landing of the Perseverance rover, and which could be possible locations for a future Martianmartian colony, include:

Terraforming is the attempt to change a planet's atmosphere or surface to make it more habitable for organisms that live on Earth. Terraforming has been theorized to be capable of resulting in a temperate, correctly pressurized environment for a colony of thousands of humans or other organisms from Earth to live safely. And whileWhile some believe this is something whichthat could be achieved on a planet such as Mars, albeit over an extended period of time, others do not believe humans possess the necessary technology.

In the case of Mars, the first step would be to work to raise the temperature of the planet. This could involve the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, such as CO2₂, and tothe createcreation of a blanket of gases to protect inhabitants from the Sunsun and keep the climate in a liveable range. However, studies into what would occur if the CO2₂ of Mars's surface and subsurface waswere lakedleaked into the atmosphere would at best triple Mars''s atmosphere, which is only a fiftieth of the change expected to be needed to make Mars habitable.

However, another complication with terraforming Mars is the lack of atmosphere. It is thin and too cold to support liquid water on the surface, and because of the lack of atmosphere, any attempts to warm up the planet isare made difficult because the lack of atmosphere would not necessarily trap the gases where they would need to stay in order to warm the planet up. This is also, in part, responsible for the lack of atmospheric pressure on the planet, and, given the lack of magnetosphere on the planet protecting it from solar radiation, it is believed that any terraforming attempt on Mars could see any collection of gases in the atmosphere get blown away by a blast of that radiation.

This has led to ideas of how to stabilize the atmosphere and protect the planet from solar radiation in order to trap carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases around the planet. ThisOne hasidea includedis the placement of large magnets between Mars and the Sunsun to deflect solar radiation and create a type of magnetosphere around the planet. And useAlso, large orbital mirrors could be used to reflect sunlight and heat the surface of Mars as atmospheric gases are released to create a stronger atmosphere around the planet.

ThereStudies have been studies intoexamined what the minimum colony size would be required to make any settlement on another planet, such as Mars, feasible, sustainable, and even successful. This study used Mars as an example planet, based in part on the ambitions of various organizations and individuals to reach Mars and set up a Martianmartian outpost and utilize the native resources of the planet. From a practical point of view, it remains unclear how many years at a minimum it would take, especially at a minimum, to achieve a reasonable level of self-sufficiency; or how many rockets would be required to send resources and goods that could be a way of life and help organize the society during a development period. This leads to the question around aof minimumaminimum colony size.

The study, published in Nature, approached the problem mathematically, with the assumption that survival dependeddepends on two important variables:

• Available local resources, which could includeincluding gas, mineralminerals, or liquidliquids present on the surface of the planet and is available if exploration is possible to extract useful chemical elements. Specific chemical elements have to be found on the planet for survival and must exist as available local resources or could be produced from the exploitation of other local resources.
• Production capacity, which includesincluding the number of items that can be produced amongfrom the list of items needed for survival over a given period of time. For a given number of settlers, the capacity has to reach an acceptable threshold for survival and the development of the settlement.

This relationship was expressed in the study as: working time requirements < working time capacity. WhichThis suggestedsuggests that requirements and capabilities can only be compared for a given period of time, and isthe study proposed to consider the orbital period of the planet as a reference time for comparisonscomparison. If it is possible to find the appropriate resources on the planet, the working time requirements and the working time capacity would depend on the following:

And theThe study looked at the growth of the colony and how that would impact the resources needed for survival. However, even as a colony grewgrows, some objects could be shared amongst several individuals, and working time requirements grow slower while working time capacity increases faster. It is therefore expected that above a minimum number of individuals, the constraint is satisfied and survival becomes possible. And theThe study looked at other complications, such as social isolation, efficiency through specialization (versus generalization), sharing and productivity, and a variety of potential reasons for colony collapses, such as:

The study offered an original method to determine the necessary or minimum number of individuals for survival on another planet or in space and used Mars as an example. ItThe ismodel was based on the comparisons between the required working time to fulfill the needs for survival and the working time capacity of the individuals. An important parameter for the model was sharing and productivity, which took each member of the colony working together as an assumption and necessary to the survival of a colony. In the example of Mars, the study found the minimum number of individuals for survival wasto be 110.

There have been studies into what the minimum colony size would be required to make any settlement on another planet, such as Mars, feasible, sustainable, and even successful. This study used Mars as an example planet, based in part on the ambitions of various organizations and individuals to reach Mars and set up a Martian outpost and utilize native resources of the planet. From a practical point of view, it remains unclear how many years it would take, especially at a minimum, to achieve a reasonable level of self-sufficiency; or how many rockets would be required to send resources and goods that could be a way of life and help organize the society during a development period. This leads to the question around a minimum colony size.

The study, published in Nature, approached the problem mathematically, with the assumption that survival depended on two important variables:

• Available local resources, which could include gas, mineral, or liquid present on the surface of the planet and is available if exploration is possible to extract useful chemical elements. Specific chemical elements have to be found on the planet for survival and must exist as available local resources or could be produced from the exploitation of other local resources.
• Production capacity, which includes the number of items that can be produced among the list of items needed for survival over a given period of time. For a given number of settlers, the capacity has to reach an acceptable threshold for survival and the development of the settlement.

This relationship was expressed in the study as: working time requirements < working time capacity. Which suggested that requirements and capabilities can only be compared for a given period of time, and is proposed to consider the orbital period of the planet as a reference time for comparisons. If it is possible to find the appropriate resources on the planet, the working time requirements and the working time capacity on:

• The number of settlers
• What living conditions are acceptable
• The main engineering choices for agriculture, industry, and life support
• The sharing and organization of the settlement

And the study looked at the growth of the colony and how that would impact the resources needed for survival. However, even as a colony grew, some objects could be shared amongst several individuals, working time requirements grow slower while working time capacity increases faster. It is therefore expected that above a minimum number of individuals, the constraint is satisfied and survival becomes possible. And the study looked at other complications, such as social isolation, efficiency through specialization (versus generalization), sharing and productivity, and potential reasons for colony collapses, such as:

• Infertility
• Inbreeding
• Sudden deaths
• Accidents
• Loss of assets
• Loss of large amounts of resources
• Loss of efficiency due to inappropriate social organization

The study offered an original method to determine the necessary or minimum number of individuals for survival on another planet or in space used Mars as an example. It is based on the comparisons between the required working time to fulfill the needs for survival and the working time capacity of the individuals. An important parameter for the model was sharing and productivity, which took each member of the colony working together as an assumption and necessary to the survival of a colony. In the example of Mars, the study found the minimum number of individuals for survival was 110.

Сolonization of Mars is not a human mission to Mars and not the exploration of Mars in the classical sense.

The colonization of Mars, and later other planets of the solar system as of 2022, is a theoretically possible process aimed at increasing the chance of survival, conservation, and also to expand the habitat of the human species and other creatures of the flora and fauna of planet Earth.

Due to the relatively small distance to our planet and natural characteristics, Mars, along with the Moon, is the most likely candidate for the establishment of a human colony in the foreseeable future. Traveling to Mars from Earth requires the least amount of energy, except for Venus. A person will not be able to live on the surface of Mars without protective equipment. However, compared to the conditions on hot Mercury and Venus, the cold outer planets, and the atmosphereless Moon and asteroids, conditions on Mars are far more livable.

Scientists, theorists and enthusiasts of the need for the colonization of Mars identify the following goals for the colonization of Mars:

• Solving the demographic problems of the Earth.
• Creation of the "Cradle of Humanity" (a kind of Ark) in case of a global cataclysm on Earth.
• Creation of a permanent base for scientific research of Mars itself and its satellites, in the future - for the study, and also, possibly, the colonization of the asteroid belt (including mining on them) and distant planets of the Solar System.
• Industrial extraction of valuable minerals. On the one hand, Mars can detect fairly rich mineral reserves, and due to the freedom of free oxygen in the atmosphere, the presence of richly born native metals is possible: copper, iron, tungsten, rhenium, uranium, gold; and the very extraction of these elements can be much more fruitful than on Earth.

In addition to these goals, the first author of this publication on the resource https://golden.com/ highlights a few more.

• The general development of science and technology, the simplification of the empirical study of the features of Mars. The implementation of new discoveries, the creation of inventions in completely different areas of human activity.

• Expansion of the habitat of endangered species of living creatures on planet Earth. Creation of original ecosystems-reserves.
• Formation of a completely new, socio-cultural, economic and political society. The author of the study suggests that on Mars it will be possible to create such a society that will have the prospect of serving as a positive example for various governments and for the population of the globe in general in order to solve the existing and future problems of mankind on planet Earth.

The theory of factors that simplify and complicate the colonization of Mars .

• The Martian day (sol) is only 24 hours 39 minutes 35 244 seconds, which is very close to the earth.
• The inclination of the axis of Mars to the plane of the ecliptic is 25.2°, and the earth's is 23.43°. As a result, on Mars, as on Earth, there is a change of seasons, although it takes almost twice as long, since the Martian year lasts 687 days (more than 1.88 times longer than the Earth).
• Mars has an atmosphere. Despite the fact that its magnitude is only 0.7% of the Earth's , this atmosphere provides some protection from solar radiation and also cosmic radiation. Also, the Martian atmosphere facilitates the aerodynamic braking of the spacecraft.
• The weakness of Martian gravity means a smaller (more than twice compared to the Earth) value of the second cosmic velocity, which makes it easier for spacecraft to take off from the surface of the planet.
• Mars has water in the form of significant and directly accessible deposits of water ice.
• The parameters of the Martian soil (pH ratio, the presence of chemical elements necessary for plants, and some other characteristics) are close to those of the Earth, and plants can be grown on Martian soil. Given the large amount of carbon dioxide (95.32%) this allows us to count (if there is enough energy) on the possibility of producing plant foods, as well as extracting water and oxygen from local resources, which significantly reduces the need in closed-loop life-support technologies that would be needed on the Moon, asteroids, or on a space station far from Earth.
• - Despite the low density of the atmosphere, the partial pressure of CO2 on the surface of Mars is 52 times greater than on Earth - this should be enough to support the life of vegetation on the planet without additional terraforming at all.
• The chemical composition of minerals common on Mars is more diverse than that of other celestial bodies near the Earth. There are widespread assumptions that they are enough to supply not only Mars itself, but also the Moon, the Earth and the asteroid belt.
• There are places on Earth in which natural conditions are similar to Martian, deserts, similar in appearance to the Martian landscape. At the equator of Mars in the summer months it is as warm (+20 ° C) as on Earth. Atmospheric pressure on Earth at an altitude of 34,668 meters - the highest point reached by a balloon with a crew on board - exceeds the maximum pressure on the surface of Mars by only about 2 times.

• The gravitational acceleration on Mars is about 3.71 m/s2, that is, 0.38 g. It is still unknown whether this is enough to avoid the health problems that come with weightlessness.
• Due to the fact that Mars is farther from the Sun, the amount of solar energy reaching its surface is only 43% of that for the Earth.
• The surface temperature of Mars is much lower than the Earth's - an average of -63 ° C. The maximum mark of the surface temperature is about +30 ° C (at noon at the equator), the minimum is -153 ° C (in winter at the poles).The temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere is always below zero.
• The orbit of Mars has an eccentricity 6 times greater than that of the Earth. This increases the annual fluctuations in planetary temperature and the amount of solar energy. At the same time, as on Earth, local seasonal fluctuations are greater than those depending on eccentricity.
• Atmospheric pressure on Mars is less than 1% of Earth's, which is too low for humans to survive without a special suit. In addition, the composition of the atmosphere is very different from the earth's: it contains 95.3% carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and only a fraction of a percent of oxygen and water.
• The radiation background on Mars is different depending on the features of the landscape, altitude, local magnetic fields and other factors, but it is 2.5 times higher than the radiation background at the International Space Station and about 13 times its average level in modern developed countries, which is close to established safety limits for astronauts.
• Water in its pure form cannot be on the surface of Mars in a liquid state, and even at a temperature above 0 ° C, the pressure rises and sublimates, that is, it rises from a strong state in a gaseous state. The liquid found on Mars is a concentrated saline solution, so the high content of perchlorates in the soil casts doubt on the possibility of growing terrestrial plants in the Martian soil without additional experiments or without artificial soil.
• Mars does not have a magnetic field generated by a mechanism similar to Earth's, only local traces of residual magnetism have been found . Together with a rarefied (more than 60 times in comparison with the Earth ) atmosphere, this significantly increases the amount of ionizing radiation reaching its surface. The magnetic field of Mars is not able to protect living organisms from cosmic radiation, and the atmosphere (subject to its artificial restoration) from scattering by the solar wind.

The colonization or settlement of Mars has received interest from public space agencies and private corporations and extensively explored in science fiction writing, film, and art. This has included interest from various companies and government space agencies. Part of the ambition to colonize Mars is the belief it could help accelerate the evolution of the human species, or at least the technology of the species, as potential colonists and later generations deal with the number of obstacles of living on Mars, including higher radiation, lower gravity, and a vast change in lifestyle compared to life on Earth.

While the expectation is that the colonization of Mars will include humans, there are other types of colonization suggested, such as robotic colonization where autonomous robots could mine the planet to provide water and fuel supplies for a potential colony or for commercial mining processes which could make colonization commercially viable. Meanwhile, the plan for colonization put forward by SpaceX CEO Elon Musk is to build a colony or city of 1 million people on Mars by 2050, using 1000 Starships at three launches per day, to create a viable colony.

Mars is a cold, dead place with an atmosphere about 100 times thinner than Earth's. There is a paltry amount of air on Mars, primarily composed of carbon dioxide, and the little atmosphere there is does almost nothing to protect the surface from the Sun's harmful radiation, and the air pressure is extremely low, at 600 Pascals, or 0.6 percent of Earth's. Walking on the surface of Mars is considered similar to walking in the vacuum of space, resulting in a severe of the bends, including ruptured lungs, dangerously swollen skin and body tissue, and ultimately death.

The thin atmosphere does not retain heat at the surface, and the average temperature on Mars is -81 degrees Fahrenheit, with the temperature dropping as low as -195 degrees Fahrenheit. Mars also has less mass than Earth, at about 0.375 that of Earth, which means a 180-pound person on Earth would weigh 68 pounds on Mars, which would wreak havoc on human musculature, human bones, and human fertility. However, among the extraterrestrial bodies in the solar system, Mars possesses the raw materials required to support life, or even a new branch of human civilization, which retains an interest in colonizing the planet.

Any potential colonists reaching Mars will only be able to carry so much water, and they will require a method for generating as much clean water as possible. The International Space Station (ISS) has tested and utilized programs for converting urine and sweat into drinkable water, but this method could not produce enough water in the quantities needed for the needs of a colony. One solution could include using robotics to drill the soil and extract water, from either ice deposits on or below the surface, and from rocks containing small amounts of water which used to be in Mars' oceans. This is based on the theory that soil from water-rich areas on Mars could be heated until the water is evaporated and extracted, but this method would have to be implemented in various places in order to produce the necessary minimum amount of water.

Potential colonists on Mars will need oxygen to breathe, which will include the generation of new sources of oxygen once on the planet. One such solution, the Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) has been tested on Mars as part of the mission of the Perseverance rover. MOXIE uses an electrolysis process to remove oxygen atoms from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, the low pressure of the planet means the ambient amounts of air floating into MOXIE's reactive core won't produce much oxygen, so the system uses a compressor to suck in nearby carbon dioxide and feed it into the electrolysis unit at Earth-like pressure.

Once there, a chemical catalyst operates at 800 degrees Celsius to rip away oxygen from each incoming CO2. And pairs of oxygen atoms combine to form stable diatomic oxygen, which exits with carbon monoxide. The MOXIE unit on the Perseverance rover is able to make about six grams of oxygen per hour, which is not enough for a single human to breathe. But it has been suggested as being possible to do at scale and produce enough for multiple humans, or a colony of humans.

Another possibility is to use low-temperature plasmas to decompose carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen. Oxygen is important to allow colonists to breathe, but also to return at Earth, as many propulsion systems use liquid oxygen to launch a rocket, and any colony will need to generate enough oxygen on another planet in order to launch a spaceship from the surface.

The issue of the lack of gravity on Mars is one already being worked around on the ISS. Bones and muscles lose mass over time in zero- or low-gravity environments, and on the ISS astronauts are required to do two hours of physical activity a day to prevent degradation. Even with this consistent resistance training, astronauts returning to Earth have had trouble walking and regaining their balance. For colonists on Mars, there would need to be a longer-term plan for dealing with the effects of reduced gravity and to ensure the colonists' bones and muscles, especially their hearts, can remain strong and healthy.

There are two types of radiation potential colonists of Mars need to worry about: solar energetic particles (SEPs) and galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). SEPs are radiation from the sun which the Earth's magnetosphere protects its habitants from. Mars' magnetosphere is much weaker, and this type of radiation could be a problem for potential colonists over time. GCRs are a byproduct of the remnants of a supernova. The Earth's atmosphere protects its habitants from this type of radiation, but with Mars' weaker atmosphere, potential colonists would have to worry about this type of radiation as well.

Some believe the levels of radiation would being increased chances of cancer, neurological degeneration, and, ultimately, death. Whereas, other proponents of Mars colonization are not as concerned, and think it is a matter of proper shielding. Shielding is used to protect astronauts on the ISS, and it would require colonists to live in heavily-shielded settlements in low-elevation areas, or shelter in lava tubes. Either way, colonists would deal with levels of radiation above what is considered safe. And even if adequately protected, long-term habitation of Mars and the increased radiation could bring unforeseen complications.

It is cold on Mars. The average temperature is around -80 degrees Fahrenheit, which has brought some ambitions to terraform Mars to warm the planet up, among other potential benefits. However, in the short term, any potential colonists would have to live in warmed and sheltered environments to keep them safe from the temperature of the planet.

For colonists on Mars, energy production would be less of a concern than other of the concerns of the planet. With a lack of weather on the planet, solar panels could be placed almost anywhere humans settle and would be capable of generating almost constant energy, except in the case of the intense dust storms which cover parts of the Red Planet for weeks, which would require the colony to have alternative energy production capabilities or else have enough energy storage facilities capable of running for those weeks.

Martian soil contains perchlorates, which are toxic to humans. Any attempt to grow food on Mars would require the extraction of the perchlorates from the soil, and even once the soil was made safe, only certain vegetables are expected to be able to grow in the greenhouse conditions on Mars. For example, vegetables such as corn or carrots probably will not be able to be grown, but spinach, garlic, and onions are expected to do well.

There are various concerns and questions about what laws or regulations may or may not apply on Mars. For example, the Outer Space Treaty is the main document that governs international cooperation and intercommunication around space and other celestial bodies. However, this does not regulate what life on a colony on Mars would look like. Generally, a colony on Mars will likely require a system of laws or regulations that potential colonists would be required to abide by, and which would take precedence over other laws and regulations, such as those governing a country of origin.

There is a possibility of a small group of like-minded individuals with common values to work together without significant conflict or conflict of interests. However, as a colony grows and becomes more diverse, especially with respect to diverse customs, beliefs, traditions, and ways of thinking which make keeping an unregulated or lawless colony from operating together. This can be especially important in a colony where there are many threats to human life and the continuance of a colony can increase the potential complications involved in any kinds of disagreements.

This asks a set of fundamental questions around the governance and application of any laws in regards to Mars colonization. The Outer Space Treaty does not preclude private companies from traveling to Mars, delivering payloads to Mars, or settling Mars; however, the treaty does prohibit potential settlers from launching weapons from Mars and prohibits them from defining land ownership. There have been efforts to develop an updated legislative system for the exploration and use of space resources aiming to go beyond the Outer Space Treaty.

In the case of any system of laws or regulations, there would have to be some kind of understanding the limited resources, extreme social isolation, and uncertainty that a potential colonist would undergo, and it would require a more hierarchical and rigid structure to ensure the protection of the larger colony, and especially as the colony grew.

When it comes to the colonization of Mars, there are some ethical considerations and issues, which can be separated into two different groups of questions, namely:

• Ethical considerations with respect to humans, both colonists and people of Earth
• Ethical considerations towards Mars itself, including possible extra-terrestrial life

NASA Human Research Program has aimed to study the risks associated with space flight over extended periods of time. Isolation and closed environments are some of the known factors to cause psychiatric distress. These medical conditions can be as damaging to the overall health of the space traveler and the success of a mission as the effects of space radiation, bone and muscle loss, and treatment of sustained injuries. Studies involving individuals and groups subjected to isolation have shown that social isolation stimulated brain activity towards short-term preservation, characterized by enhanced vigilance for social threats. Isolation also promoted more abrasive and defensive behavior, which can negatively affect the social dynamics of a small crew.

These issues, both psychological and physiological, are difficult if not impossible to address. The issues further are independent of culture, religion, or education. And they ask the question of whether colonization of Mars, which will inevitably place participants in similar conditions of space travel, can be ethical. Even if all participants are made aware of the known risks associated with the mission and give their consent for the mission, there remains the question of how informed the consent can actually be and if it can ever be ethical.

A strong case in favor of the colonization of Mars is the survival of humanity in the case of a global catastrophe that would make Earth no longer habitable. Having a distant outpost on Mars would allow humanity to escape those consequences and survive as a species. But history shows that no matter how responsible, colonists affect the environments they colonize. Despite the low chance of discovering intelligent life in space, there remains the possibility of discovering abiogenesis on Mars, and such a discovery would have tremendous scientific and philosophical significance, providing a second and potentially novel example of biochemistry and evolutionary history. This could even prove to be an ultimate proof that extra-terrestrial life in higher forms is possible.

However, if native life is discovered, regardless of how primitive, and it is incompatible with the notion of what Mars should become for the accommodation of human life, it raises the question of whether colonization should be continued, or whether this life form should be protected and preserved. Earth has examples of these kinds of life, known as extremophiles, which could be found on Mars. Although there are further questions about whether these types of life could even be discovered before colonists would have already changed the environment of Mars.

This also questions whether this life should be protected. On Earth, microbial decontamination is widespread and critical to food safety, healthcare, and human survival. And this goes on to question whether or at what point the need for human survival supersedes the need to protect and preserve this type of extremophile microbial life.

When it comes to the feasibility to reach Mars, the question is less one of technological capability and is, rather, a question of money. Since humans reached the Moon, important people and people in the positions to oversee future missions have promised trips to the Moon and further. These have included people like President George H. W. Bush, President George W. Bush, President Barach Obama, and President Donald Trump. But in each case, the cost of a trip to the Moon, let alone Mars, has tempered ambition. But, if the financial question was answered, the steps to reach and eventually colonize Mars would include:

NASA and commercial partners have developed spacecraft capable of journeying to Mars. For NASA, the new SLS combined with an Orion capsule is expected to allow astronauts to explore beyond the relative safety of the low Earth Orbit. Although any long-duration mission is expected to include a habitation module to give the crew room to move around, the nine-month trip to Mars is expected to be both uncomfortable and boring. Apart from the risks of launch, during the transit to Mars the crew will be exposed to damaging levels of radiation that can increase the risk of crew members developing cancer, and harm fertility. Further, landing on Mars will be a challenge, as the lack of atmosphere reduces the amount of drag that can be used to slow down a crew module or drone and requires different ideas for landing, including an inflatable heatshield designed by NASA to slow the spacecraft upon approach to the Mars surface, and to make a larger craft feasible.

Another important part of travel to and from Mars are the propulsion systems. A powerful enough propulsion system, with an efficient fuel source (such as nuclear or ionization, as some systems have proposed) could reduce the overall time it takes astronauts to travel between Earth and Mars regardless of the period the orbits are in between the two planets.

Having landed on Mars, there will be a need for air, water, food, and power to survive. In the short term, this could include reliance on supplies from Earth; but in the long term, any colony will need the capability and technology to produce their own. These concerns and possible solutions include the MOXIE unit on the Perseverance rover, even if it is at a hundredth of the scale needed for a human expedition. Further, there would be a need to build various other structures, such as future habitats in the case of any damage to existing habitats, to utilize the abundant supply of CO2 on the planet and for propellant production to help colonists move to and from the planet's surface, and other production processes that will be required to maintain habitats and make any necessary fixes on equipment, including metal processing and plastic production.

Self-sufficiency includes the need for water, especially for the subsistence of human life on the colony, and as part of the use of some types of propellant, such as hydrogen or oxygen-based propellant. One attempt to create a water collection process is the Mars Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) project which has analyzed historical mission data from the various Mars missions in order to identify potential locations where the likelihood of water under the surface is greater than others. Such a location would allow future colonists to drill and have ready access to water.

Food production is another difficulty that any colony will have. Both as the soil does not seem to be capable of growing edible food; while there are projects which look to develop the necessary, although not necessarily appetizing, biology which could subsist human life. As for power, this is expected to be fairly straightforward, with a mixture of fuel cells, nuclear batteries, and solar arrays. But, given the week-long duststorms which ravage the planet's surface, these resources will need to be carefully managed.

There are challenges with governing anything, let alone an extraterrestrial colony. It is expected that early missions, especially those that involve space agencies, will run with a hierarchical command system. But, as partly explored above, as a colony on the planet grows and matures, there will be a need for a more democratic form of government, especially as a space colony is expected to be tyranny-prone. If a party were capable of seizing control of necessary resources, such as oxygen, could use that to threaten consequences if not given their desired levels of power. A government would also need an economy and systems to maintain the habitat, provide employment, health, childcare, social care, and education.

Any settlement on Mars would be living in capsules they arrive in, perhaps with other capsules sent ahead of them, or after, to help augment the larger environment, and even include some inflatable domes to increase the usable space the settlers could use. However, as settlers would use local resources for water, food, or energy, these settlers could also use local materials to build a larger colony or spin-off colonies. This could include the use of Martian rock to bury habitats and shield from radiation, or to drill into the surface to form caves and rock for building materials, and it could be possible to extract minerals for metals or glass. This has also led to ideas such as terraforming Mars to turn the planet from an airless and barren world into an oxygen-rich green and pleasant world with a functioning ecosystem.

Another part of an expansion of the Martian colony would be the potential for the colonists to have children, to raise those children on the colony, and to, over time, establish a culture unique to the planet. Some have suggested that a population of 2,000 would be sufficient to ensure the longer-term survival of the colony.

There are, according to who is asked, tens if not hundreds of potential Mars landing sites. At NASA workshops, researchers have debated the strengths and weaknesses of various of these landing sites, as any landing site would likely end up being the site of a colony. And what is known about any potential landing site continues to grow as more discoveries are made by passing satellites and surface rovers. And the ideal site would provide future colonists with a chance to shelter from the harsh conditions of the planet and close proximity to scientific or resource jackpots that can help them survive.

Potential landing spots for NASA's Perseverance rover.

For each place, often the main two questions asked are: which place enables scientists to make the most discoveries? And which place allows engineers the best chance of landing and moving safely? The potential landing sites used in the landing of the Perseverance rover, and which could be possible locations for a future Martian colony, include:

Terraforming is the attempt to change a planet's atmosphere or surface to make it more habitable for organisms that live on Earth. Terraforming has been theorized to be capable of resulting in a temperate, correctly pressurized environment for a colony of thousands of humans or other organisms from Earth to live safely. And while some believe this is something which could be achieved on a planet such as Mars, albeit over an extended period of time, others do not believe humans possess the necessary technology.

In the case of Mars, the first step would be to work to raise the temperature of the planet. This could involve the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, such as CO2, and to create a blanket of gases to protect inhabitants from the Sun and keep the climate in a liveable range. However, studies into what would occur if the CO2 of Mars surface and subsurface was laked into the atmosphere would at best triple Mars' atmosphere, which is only a fiftieth of the change expected to be needed to make Mars habitable.

However, another complication with terraforming Mars is the lack of atmosphere. It is thin and too cold to support liquid water on the surface, and because of the lack of atmosphere, any attempts to warm up the planet is made difficult because the lack of atmosphere would not necessarily trap the gases where they would need to stay in order to warm the planet up. This is also, in part, responsible for the lack of atmospheric pressure on the planet and, given the lack of magnetosphere on the planet protecting it from solar radiation, it is believed that any terraforming attempt on Mars could see any collection of gases in the atmosphere get blown away by a blast of that radiation.

This has led to ideas of how to stabilize the atmosphere and protect the planet from solar radiation in order to trap carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases around the planet. This has included the placement of large magnets between Mars and the Sun to deflect solar radiation and create a type of magnetosphere around the planet. And use large orbital mirrors to reflect sunlight and heat the surface of Mars as atmospheric gases are released to create a stronger atmosphere around the planet.

Factors that make Mars colonization easier:

• There are places on Earth in which natural conditions are similar to Martian, deserts, similar in appearance to the Martian landscape. At the equator of Mars in the summer months it is as warm (+20 ° C) as on Earth. Atmospheric pressure on Earth at an altitude of 34,668 meters - the highest point reached by a balloon with a crew on board - exceeds the maximum pressure on the surface of Mars by only about 2 times.

• The gravitational acceleration on Mars is about 3.71 m/s2, that is, 0.38 g. It is still unknown whether this is enough to avoid the health problems that come with weightlessness.
• Due to the fact that Mars is farther from the Sun, the amount of solar energy reaching its surface is only 43% of that for the Earth.
• The surface temperature of Mars is much lower than the Earth's - an average of -63 ° C. The maximum mark of the surface temperature is about +30 ° C (at noon at the equator), the minimum is -153 ° C (in winter at the poles).The temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere is always below zero.
• The orbit of Mars has an eccentricity 6 times greater than that of the Earth. This increases the annual fluctuations in planetary temperature and the amount of solar energy. At the same time, as on Earth, local seasonal fluctuations are greater than those depending on eccentricity.
• Atmospheric pressure on Mars is less than 1% of Earth's, which is too low for humans to survive without a special suit. In addition, the composition of the atmosphere is very different from the earth's: it contains 95.3% carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and only a fraction of a percent of oxygen and water.
• The radiation background on Mars is different depending on the features of the landscape, altitude, local magnetic fields and other factors, but it is 2.5 times higher than the radiation background at the International Space Station and about 13 times its average level in modern developed countries, which is close to established safety limits for astronauts.
• Water in its pure form cannot be on the surface of Mars in a liquid state, and even at a temperature above 0 ° C, the pressure rises and sublimates, that is, it rises from a strong state in a gaseous state. The liquid found on Mars is a concentrated saline solution, so the high content of perchlorates in the soil casts doubt on the possibility of growing terrestrial plants in the Martian soil without additional experiments or without artificial soil.
• Mars does not have a magnetic field generated by a mechanism similar to Earth's, only local traces of residual magnetism have been found . Together with a rarefied (more than 60 times in comparison with the Earth ) atmosphere, this significantly increases the amount of ionizing radiation reaching its surface. The magnetic field of Mars is not able to protect living organisms from cosmic radiation, and the atmosphere (subject to its artificial restoration) from scattering by the solar wind.