Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov

Date and place of birth: November 19, 1711, Arkhangelsk province

Date and place of death: April 15, 1765, St. Petersburg, Russia

Education: University of Marburg (1736–1739), MORE

Children: Elena Mikhailovna Lomonosova

Burial place: Lazarevsky cemetery, St. Petersburg, Russia, MORE

Parents: Elena Ivanovna Sivkova, Vasily Dorofeevich LomonosovChildhood

Handwriting samples of 14-year-old (top) and 19-year-old (bottom) M. V. Lomonosov

A pond near the restored Lomonosov estate (now the Lomonosov Museum) in the village of Lomonosovo

The font in which M. V. Lomonosov was baptized

Born on November 8 (19), 1711 in the village of Mishaninskaya, Kurostrovskaya volost, Dvinsky district, Arkhangelsk province (Arkhangelsk region) in a wealthy family of Vasily Dorofeevich (1681-1741) and the daughter of the mallow of the Nikolaev Matigors churchyard, Elena Ivanovna (nee Sivkova) (? - 1720) Lomonosov . The father, according to the recall of his son, was by nature a kind person, but "brought up in extreme ignorance" [30]. M. V. Lomonosov's mother died very early, when he was nine years old. In 1721, his father married Feodora Mikhailovna Uskova. In the summer of 1724 she also died. A few months later, returning from the crafts, the father married for the third time - to the widow Irina Semyonovna (nee Korelskaya). For thirteen-year-old Lomonosov, his father's third wife turned out to be "an evil and envious stepmother"[30].

Hukor. Model. Museum of M. V. Lomonosov. Saint Petersburg

Mikhail began helping his father from the age of ten. Together they went fishing in the White Sea and to the Solovetsky Islands. The frequent dangers of swimming tempered the physical strength of the young man and enriched his mind with a variety of observations. The influence of the nature of the Russian north is easy to see not only in the language of M.V. Lomonosov, but also in his scientific interests: “questions of the northern lights, cold and heat, sea travel, sea ice, the reflection of marine life on land - all this goes far into the depths, in the first impressions of a young Pomor"[31].

See also: Ancestors and descendants of M. V. Lomonosov

Belonging to Pomors

The name “pomor” of Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov, who came from a family of peasants in the Kurostrovskaya volost near Kholmogory, who only occasionally and rarely engaged in distant sea fisheries, is called into question. Journalist Dmitry Semushin argues that M. V. Lomonosov’s “pomorism” is a beautiful historical myth[32]. The vagueness of the term should also be kept in mind (see the history of the study of the Pomors), which makes it possible to include broad groups of the population in the concept.

M. V. Lomonosov himself spoke about his origin during interrogation on September 4, 1734 in the office of the Moscow Synodal Board: in that village it is found with other peasants and put in a capitation salary”[33]. There are no historical documents in which M.V. Lomonosov referred to himself or his relatives as “pomors”. He is a peasant according to his class status and a Dvinian according to the local regional definition. The localization “Dvinyanin”, that is, a resident of the Dvina district, is consistent with the definition of “Dvina residents” (“Dvina people”), used by the younger contemporary of M.V.

In the documents with information about the father of M. V. Lomonosov Vasily Dorofeyevich and his uncle Luka Leontyevich, preserved in the State Archive of the Arkhangelsk Region, they are called “peasants of the Kuroostrovskaya volost”, “Dvinyans”, “Kholmogory”, but not “Pomors” [35 ]. The niece of M. V. Lomonosov, Matryona Evseevna Golovina (in the marriage of Lopatkin), whose memoirs were recorded in 1828 by Pavel Petrovich Svinin in Arkhangelsk, did not call “Pomors” M. V. Lomonosov himself and his fellow countrymen who met with him, who came from Arkhangelsk on ships to St. Petersburg[36].

The biographer who first made M. V. Lomonosov a “pomor” was the Russian historian Vladimir Ivanovich Lamansky (1833-1914). On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the death of the scientist, in 1863 he published his biography[37], in which he called M. V. Lomonosov “pomor” for the first time in biographical literature. V. I. Lamansky from the beginning of the 1860s was engaged in the history of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Not being a specialist in the history of the Russian North, he was nevertheless an extremely talented and prolific historian, therefore the biography of Lomonosov written by him influenced all subsequent biographical “Lomonosov studies”.

Primary education

Youthful handwriting of M. V. Lomonosov. 1725

Mikhail Lomonosov was taught to read and write by the deacon of the local Dmitrov Church, S. N. Sabelnikov. “The gates of learning”[30], in his own words, are made for him “Grammar” by Melety Smotrytsky, “Arithmetic” by L. F. Magnitsky, “Rhyming Psalter” by Simeon Polotsky. At the age of fourteen, young Lomonosov wrote competently and clearly.

Lomonosov's life in his own home became unbearable, filled with constant quarrels with his stepmother. Lomonosov's passion for books especially embittered his stepmother. Upon learning that his father wanted to marry him, Lomonosov decided to leave for Moscow. He pretended to be ill, the wedding had to be postponed[38].

Education in Moscow and Kiev (1731-1735)

In December 1730, 19-year-old Mikhail set off with a fish convoy from Kholmogory to Moscow. The journey to Moscow looked like an escape, as the future scientist left

M. V. Lomonosov claims that all substances consist of corpuscles - molecules, which are "assemblies" of elements - atoms. In his dissertation "Elements of Mathematical Chemistry" (1741; not completed), the scientist gives the following definitions: "An element is a part of a body that does not consist of any other smaller and different bodies ... A corpuscle is a collection of elements that forms one small mass."

In a later work (1748), instead of "element" he uses the word "atom", and instead of "corpuscle" - particula (lat. particula) - "particle" or "molecule" (lat. molecula). He gives the "element" its modern meaning - in the sense of the limit of divisibility of bodies - the last component of them. The ancients said: “As words are made up of letters, so bodies are made up of elements.” Atoms and molecules (elements and corpuscles) in M. V. Lomonosov are often also “physical insensitive particles”, which emphasizes that these particles are sensually imperceptible. M. V. Lomonosov points to the difference between "homogeneous" corpuscles, that is, consisting of "the same number of the same elements connected in the same way", and "heterogeneous" - consisting of different elements. Bodies consisting of homogeneous corpuscles, that is, simple bodies, he calls beginnings (Latin principium)[40][67].

With his corpuscular-kinetic theory of heat, M. V. Lomonosov anticipated many hypotheses and provisions that accompanied the further development of atomistics and theories of the structure of matter. In his theses, logical constructions and proofs, one can observe the following analogies with ideas that became relevant more than a hundred years later: atoms - spherical rotating particles - the next step was taken only with the hypothesis of the electron (1874; more precisely, even later - with the advent of the model of rotational motion particles around the nucleus - electronic configuration, rotational symmetry), an increase in the speed of rotation affects the increase in temperature, and rest - anticipates the idea of ​​absolute zero and the impossibility of reaching it. In 1778, B. Rumfoord semi-empirically approaches close conclusions about the nature of heat. Second law of thermodynamics - 1850; according to J. Joule (1844), heat is a consequence of the rotational motion of molecules; the relationship between heat and mechanical energy, the mechanical theory of heat - in the equations of W. D. Rankin and R. Clausius - in substantiating the second law of thermodynamics, in considering chemical processes. M. V. Lomonosov, with an erroneous initial thesis about the contact of particles (but - rotational!), Nevertheless, for the first time uses a geometric model for proof related to the shape, structure and interaction of different sizes of spherical atoms; empirically came close to the discovery of hydrogen; he gave a kinetic model of an ideal gas, according to certain provisions, with a number of corrections - corresponding to the one adopted later; demonstrates the relationship between the volume and elasticity of air (see the Boyle-Mariotte law), immediately indicates its discreteness for air under strong compression, which determines the final size of its molecules - this idea was applied by J. D. Van der Waals in the conclusion real gas equations; Considering heat and light (1756-1757), M. V. Lomonosov comes to conclusions about the rotational (“rotary”) propagation of heat particles and the wave (“fluctuating”) propagation of light particles (in 1771, thermal radiation, “radiant heat”, considers K. V. Scheele); the Russian scientist speaks of the same origin of light and electricity, which, with certain corrections for the general representations of time, is comparable with the provisions of the electromagnetic theory of D. K. Maxwell. Some of these statements in one form or another were later expressed by other scientists, in a single consideration - by no one. The validity of these analogies and the antecedence of the hypotheses of M. V. Lomonosov are quite convincingly shown by the chemist and historian of science N. A. Figurovsky and many other scientists[30][40][67].

M. V. Lomonosov put the rotational movement in the basis of his “Natural Philosophy”, as one of the fundamental principles of the universe. With all the speculative-philosophical nature and logic of M.V. Lomonosov’s ideas (the scientist also widely used the mathematical apparatus; but mathematics in itself is not an “absolute guarantor of reliability” - the initial ones must be reliable) this is no coincidence. W. Gibbs states: “A mathematician can say whatever he pleases, a physicist must retain at least a modicum of common sense”; P. Duhem[73] talks about the same thing), they are convincing and fair (as we see, the mathematician Leonard Euler noted this) and are in good agreement with the discoveries that followed many decades later - like the discovery of his successor - D. I. Mendeleev , who, not knowing the structure of the atom, gave a fundamental law, which subsequently guided those who comprehended precisely this structure[30][40][67].

The conclusions of the mechanical theory of heat, having confirmed it itself, for the first time substantiated the hypothesis of the atomic and molecular structure of matter - atomistics received objective natural science evidence.

solid mercury

In December 1759, M. V. Lomonosov and I. A. Braun were the first to obtain solid mercury. But the importance of this success for M.V. Lomonosov was expressed to a greater extent not by the fact of priority, but by the logic of the argumentation of a number of provisions of his corpuscular-kinetic theory, and the subsequent success in the classification of substances - when the scientist was the first in January 1760, along with the solution of a number of other problems , the electrical conductivity and malleability of mercury was shown, which became the basis for classifying this substance as a metal[40].

Helicopter prototype

As part of meteorological research, including measurements at different altitudes (temperature, pressure, etc.), M. V. Lomonosov, regardless of the idea of ​​Leonardo da Vinci, whose works were found much later, developed a vertical take-off aircraft - the first prototype of a helicopter with two (presumably coaxial [93]) screws. However, he did not mean manned flights - only the rise of weather instruments.

Documents show that the scientist made his working model[14][94][95][96] According to the protocol of the conference of the Academy of Sciences (1754, July 1; translated from Latin) and in the report of M. V. Lomonosov on scientific work in 1754 (1755)[97]:

Reconstruction of the aerodrome machine of M. V. Lomonosov (exposition of the State Museum of Cinematography named after K. E. Tsiolkovsky)

No. 4 ... The highly respected adviser Lomonosov showed a machine invented by him, which he calls an aerodrome [air-breathing], which should be used in order to press the air [throw it down ], which will cause the machine to rise into the upper layers of the air, in order to be able to examine the conditions [state] of the upper air by means of meteorological machines [instruments] attached to this aerodrome machine. The machine was suspended on a cord stretched over two pulleys and kept in balance by weights suspended from the opposite end. As soon as the spring started, [the machine] rose in height and then promised to achieve the desired action. But this effect, according to the inventor, will be increased still more if the force of the spring is increased and if the distance between the two pairs of wings is increased, and the box in which the spring is laid is made of wood to reduce weight. He [the inventor] promised to take care of this... / No. 5 ... He made an experiment on a machine that, rising up by itself, could take a small thermometer with it in order to find out the degree of heat at the height, which, although with more than two spools, became lighter , but not brought to the desired end.

The original airfield machine has not been preserved[98][99], the models available in museums are reconstructions.

Geography, navigation and geology

Lomonosov headed the geographical department of the Academy of Sciences, led the work on the creation of a geographical atlas, restored the globe after a fire, and created a circumpolar map.

Defining geography as a complex science, Lomonosov substantiated most of his conclusions in particular areas: in the doctrines of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and the stone shell. He came to the conclusion that the atmosphere had three layers. In the lower layer, the most significant changes occur, which are reflected on the surface of the planet. In particular, Lomonosov formulated the concept of convective, that is, ascending and descending air currents and related electrical phenomena. The middle layer is characterized by a constant low temperature. The upper one does not depend on the earth's surface. Lomonosov substantiated the formation of the maritime and continental climate, the influence of the height of the place on climatic conditions, and, naturally, gave due credit to the influence of the latitude of the area in the processes of climate formation.

Lomonosov gave a classification of natural ice, substantiated the differences in the temperature of ice formation of water with different mineralization.

Lomonosov rightly assumed the presence of a constant movement of ice from the eastern sectors of the Arctic towards the Atlantic.

Lomonosov's most complete understanding of the structure of the earth's surface and the transformations of the face of the earth is contained in his work "On the Layers of the Earth"[100], which is called the beginning of Russian scientific geology[101]. Lomonosov put forward a hypothesis about the existence of zones with fast and slow vertical movements of the earth's firmament, depending on the strength of the "internal fire", about the primary contribution of these movements to the origin of the largest unevenness of the earth's surface.

Lomonosov was determined to significantly improve the country's maps and atlases. Lomonosov himself took part in the compilation of maps. In particular, he prepared a map of the Arctic as a vast ocean space with the proposed position of the coasts of North America.

Lomonosov put forward the idea of ​​systematic updating of geographical maps every 20 years. The Academic Atlas also needed updating.

Life and health protection

The same work contains many ideas in the field of health and public health.

Even earlier, in 1742, in his work “The First Foundations of Metallurgy or Mining”, he covered in detail various issues of safety and hygiene at work of “mountain people”, the organization of their work and rest, the reliability of ground fastenings, the safety of climbing stairs, the rationality of working clothes. He also studied many other issues of labor safety, which were then acute in the production of hazardous work[102].

Contribution to the development of the Russian language

Rhetoric

See also: Rhetoric

Lomonosov in 1743 wrote a "Concise Guide to Rhetoric" in Russian. Lomonosov's main work on rhetoric is called "Rhetoric" (1748). This book became, in fact, the first in Russia anthology of world literature, which also included the best works of Russian literature. Lomonosov's manuals were the first publicly available guides to eloquence. His very definition of rhetoric is traditional:

Rhetoric is the science of speaking and writing eloquently about any proposed matter, that is, presenting it with selected speeches and depicting it with decent words to such an end that listeners and readers about its justice[103].

The Rhetoric has three traditional sections: on invention, decoration, location. In his work, he singles out rhetoric proper - the doctrine of eloquence in general; oratorio - instructions for composing speeches in prose; Poetry - instructions for composing poetic works. Lomonosov's first attempt to create a rhetoric textbook is an event of great historical significance. On the basis of "Rhetoric", textbooks on Russian eloquence were subsequently written.

Grammar and style theory

M. V. Lomonosov. Russian grammar in German. Saint Petersburg. 1764

Lomonosov was also the author of the first scientific Russian grammar. In the "Russian Grammar" Lomonosov, for the first time for the Russian language, based on a scientific approach for more than 10 years of systematic research of a huge amount of language material, substantiated the normative use of grammatical forms (including their orthoepic variants) and categories, as well as lexico-phraseological units. Any speech phenomenon was considered by him from the point of view of semantic clarity (“intelligibility”) and relevance (prevalence) in the speech communication of the middle of the 18th century: “dilapidated” and therefore rare in “live” use, and therefore unfamiliar to many words, sayings, grammatical forms, or actively used, modern ones.[104]

Lomonosov's "Russian Grammar" is a normative description of the Russian language, which outlines the doctrine of parts of speech. The orthoepic recommendations of the “Russian Grammar” are based on the specifics of the “Moscow dialect”: “The Moscow dialect is rightly preferred by others not only for the importance of the capital city, but also for its excellent beauty”[105]. Lomonosov introduced the concept of artistic and expressive techniques.

He developed the stylistic system of the Russian language of the era of classicism - the theory of three calms (the book "Discourse on the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language").

Poetic Theory and Practice

M. V. Lomonosov, together with V. K. Trediakovsky, carried out a syllabo-tonic reform (“Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry”), and it was Lomonosov’s experiments that were perceived by the poets as exemplary. Based on the German model, he created the classic Russian iambic tetrameter, initially “heavy” full-strike (odes to Ioann Antonovich, “Evening Reflection”), then lightened by missing accents.

The founder of the Russian solemn (addressed to the rulers) and philosophical ode. Lomonosov's poetry is saturated with scientific, cosmic and natural-philosophical imagery (a didactic epistle to Shuvalov, "Reflections"); he contributed to Russian satire ("Hymn to the Beard", epigrams). The unfinished poem "Peter the Great" was an attempt at a national epic. Many lines of Lomonosov became winged.

The sciences of young men feed Joy to the old.

The abyss has opened, full of stars, There are no stars, the abyss is bottomless.

Literary creativity

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Main article: Lomonosov bibliography

Poetic translations by M. V. Lomonosov (Horace and Anacreon)

See also: Horace and Anacreon

And to the Lomonosov translations of Anacreon and Horace themselves and to their fate or 250 years, many philologists, literary critics and linguists. Even A. N. Radishchev in the mentioned chapter “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” writes:

Not a pillar erected over your corruption will preserve your memory for future generations. Not a stone with the cutting of your name will bring your glory to future centuries. Your word, living forever and ever in your creations, the word of the Russian tribe, renewed by you in our language, will fly in the mouths of the people over the boundless horizon of centuries.

Both the translation of M. V. Lomonosov and this allusion, directly or indirectly, gave rise to a series of poetic references to both the ancient original and Lomonosov's reading of it. Among the most famous authors are G. R. Derzhavin, K. N. Batyushkov, A. S. Pushkin, A. Kh. Vostokov; in her lexical and etymological analysis, L. A. Musorina demonstrates the evolution of the phenomenon, recalling that S. A. Tuchkov, V. Ya. Bryusov (three poems), V. Khodasevich, V. N. Krachkovsky are involved in this tradition ( two poems), S. V. Shervinsky, N. I. Shaternikov, B. V. Nikolsky, Ya. E. Golosovker, A. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N. F. Fokkov. Having transformed the name of A. S. Pushkin’s ode, V. A. Zhukovsky establishes continuity coming from G. R. Derzhavin, who, in turn, owes the origin of his “pillar” to Radishchev’s metaphor, as pointed out by the publicist V. E. Ronkin . But the collection of Gai Mikhailovich Sever gives the most complete picture of this tradition, adding to the list of translators of the 30th ode of Horace "To Melpomene" (lat. "Ad Melpomenen"), better known precisely as "Monument", with the following names: V. A. Alekseev , P. Bobtsov, N. V. Vulikh, V. V. Kapnist, B. Lapkov, P. F. Porfirov, G. M. Sever, S. Suvorova, and A. A. Fet[106][107][108 ].

Such a detail is interesting in the “relationships” of the work of M. V. Lomonosov as a poet-translator with the work of eleven other Russian poets, including G. R. Derzhavin and A. S. Pushkin: together with others, both of the latter in their personified “Monuments” reproduce the semantic error of the first, made in the translation of the "Monument". Philologist L. A. Musorina notes: “M. V. Lomonosov did not understand the original text of the 30th ode of Horace and thus gave rise to a literary tradition: out of nineteen authors, eleven wrote their "Monuments" with reference to places of future glory. We are talking about the misinterpretation by M.V. Lomonosov of Horace's mention of a toponym and an anthroponym as two toponyms, which led to a change in the meaning of Horace's rather significant indication of his primary role in transcribing the Aeolian song into the Italic mode, which resulted in a figurative indication of an allegedly geographical the breadth of his fame. For one reason or another (whether insufficient knowledge of Latin, or the influence of the authority of M.V. Lomonosov), these translators reproduce this error. At the same time, this, of course, did not affect the artistic value of the works, moreover, in this respect, the “mistake” of M.V. is it, no matter how an attribute of the irrational essence of true creativity?[106]

Literary critic L. V. Omelko considers Lomonosov's text as a universal whole, where both the poet's thoughts and the form of their expression are important. One of the last poetic works of M. V. Lomonosov, “A Conversation with Anacreon”, is proposed to be regarded as a kind of “artistic and philosophical testament”. As an example of poetic syllogism, M. V. Lomonosov gives his translation of Horace’s “Monument” in Rhetoric, but unlike G. R. Derzhavin and A. S. Pushkin, who, as we can now say with confidence, followed this translation, he does not project it on the assessment of his own creativity, which to some extent he does through the “Conversation with Anacreon”, personifying the synthesis of the depth of philosophical thought and the poetic skill of the poet[109].

Returning to Pushkin's critical notes, let us cite his words, which speak of the time of M.V. Lomonosov, and again - about himself, and if there is very little about his poetry here, then about the personality of the "Russian Pindar" and about the attitude towards him A S. Pushkin, you can get some idea:

Derzhavin surreptitiously wrote satires on Sumarokov and came as if nothing had happened to enjoy his fury. Lomonosov was of a different breed. It was hard to joke with him. He was the same everywhere: at home, where everyone trembled for him; in the palace, where he tore the ears of the pages; at the Academy, where, according to Schlozer, they did not dare to utter a word in front of him. Not many people know his verse skirmish with Dmitry Sechenov on the occasion of the “Hymn to the Beard”, which was not published in any collection of his works. It can give an idea of ​​the arrogance of the poet, as well as the intolerance of the preacher. With all that, Lomonosov was good-natured. How good is his letter abo the family of the unfortuate Richmann! In relation to himself, he was very careless, and, it seems, his wife, although she was German, knew little about the household ... Lomonosov, born in a low societyIn relation to himself, he was very careless, and, it seems, his wife, although she was German, knew little about the economy ... Lomonosov, born in a low class, did not think to exalt himself with arrogance and familiarity with people of higher status (although, however, in rank he could be equal to them). But on the other hand, he knew how to stand up for himself and did not value either the patronage of his patrons, or his well-being, when it came to his honor or the triumph of his favorite ideas ... Listen to how he writes to this very Shuvalov, representative of the Mus, his high patron, who thought to play a joke on him. “I, your excellency, do not want to be a fool not only among the nobles, but below my Lord God.” !" “No,” Lomonosov proudly objected, “unless the Academy will be removed from me.” Such was this humiliated writer of commendable odes and court idylls![110]

And here is another opinion of A. S. Pushkin about the poetry of M. V. Lomonosov (On the preface of Mr. Lemonte to the translation of the fables of I. A. Krylov)[110]:

... The exact sciences were always his main and favorite pastime, while poetry was sometimes fun, but more often a job exercise. We would have searched in vain in our first lyrics for fiery outbursts of feeling and imagination. His style, even, flourishing and picturesque, derives its main advantage from a deep knowledge of the bookish Slavic language and from its happy merging with the language of the common people. That is why the expositions of the psalms and other strong and close imitations of the high poetry of the sacred books are his best works. They will remain eternal monuments of Russian literature; according to them for a long time we will have to study our poetic language; but it is strange to complain that secular people do not read Lomonosov, and to demand that a man who died 70 years ago remains the favorite of the public to this day. As if the glory of the great Lomonosov needed the petty honors of a fashionable writer!

Criticism of the poetry of M. V. Lomonosov

There are at least two examples of a critical assessment of the poetic heritage of M. V. Lomonosov: A. S. Pushkin - in his work of the third, if not the fourth plan - not too well-known "diverse travel notes" essay - a paraphrase of Radishchev's "real journey" - in "Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg" (first published under this code name in 1933)[111], and in the chapter "Black Dirt" of Radishchev's "Journey", quoted by the same A.S. Pushkin, who says so about the latter, setting out further his opinion[110]:

At the end of his book, Radishchev placed a word about Lomonosov. It is written in an inflated and heavy style. Radishchev had a secret intention to strike a blow at the inviolable glory of the Russian Pindar. It is also noteworthy that Radishchev carefully covered this intention with tricks of respect and treated Lomonosov's fame much more carefully than with the supreme power, which he attacked with such insane impudence. He filled more than thirty pages with vulgar praises of the poet, rhetorician and grammarian, in order to place the following rebellious lines at the end of his speech:

We wish to show that, in relation to Russian literature, the one who paved the way to the temple of glory is the first person responsible for acquiring fame, even though he could not enter the temple. Bacon of Verulam is not worthy of a reminder that he could only say how sciences can be multiplied? Are courageous writers unworthy of gratitude, rising up to destruction and omnipotence, in order that they could not deliver mankind from shackles and captivity? And we will not honor Lomonosov for the fact that he did not understand the rules of a shameful poem and languished in the epic, that he was a stranger in verses of sensitivity, that he was not always insightful in his judgments, and that in his very odes he sometimes contained more words than thoughts.

Lomonosov was a great man. Between Peter I and Catherine II, he alone is an original associate of enlightenment. He created the first university. It would be better to say that it was our first university itself. But in this university, the professor of poetry and eloquence is nothing but a serviceable official, and not a poet inspired from above, not an orator, powerfully captivating. The monotonous and shy forms in which he cast his thoughts give his prose a tedious and difficult course. This scholastic majesty, half-Slavic, half-Latin, became a necessity: fortunately, Karamzin freed the language from an alien yoke and restored its freedom, turning it to the living sources of the people's word. In Lomonosov there is neither feeling nor imagination. His odes, written on the model of the then German poets, long forgotten in Germany itself, are tedious and inflated. His influence on literature was harmful and still reverberates in it. Grandiloquence, sophistication, disgust at simplicity and precision, the absence of any nationality and originality - these are the traces left by Lomonosov. Lomonosov himself did not value his poetry and was much more concerned about his chemical experiments than about official odes on the highly solemn day of the namesake

In the “philippics” of A. S. Pushkin and A. N. Radishchev, their private opinion is expressed: in the first case, the poet is of a different era, other tastes, when much of the relatively recent past - “the eighteenth century, the century of odes” - was overestimated. It was at this time that Lomonosov the naturalist was "overlooked"; but if the same A. N. Radishchev, whose generation began this reassessment, takes the liberty of saying that “Lomonosov did not achieve greatness in the trials of nature,” then A. S. Pushkin refrains from such a “verdict” and, giving in these However, in his notes, an extremely detailed register of the natural scientist's scientific publications is limited to general laudatory epithets. For the time being little-known critical opinion of A. S. Pushkin about Lomonosov the humanist conflicts with the enthusiastic assessments of Lomonosov the humanist already known to us in other publications of the same A. S. Pushkin[110][112][113][114]

Scientific terminology

Mikhail Vasilyevich created the foundations of the Russian scientific language; he was extremely successful in translating the basic physical and chemical terms from Latin.[115]

Lomonosov for the first time introduced many new scientific terms into the Russian language and science, which for the most part were fixed in everyday life. Some of them were transcription and transliteration of established or just introduced into scientific vocabulary terms: atmosphere, microscope, minus, pole, formula, periphery, horizon, diameter, radius, proportion, barometer, manometer, ecliptic, meteorology, optics, viscosity, crystallization , matter, ether, saltpeter, sublimate, potash ... and the like. Others are tracings of terms that were present in the scientific thesaurus, or neologisms. According to various sources, they include the following: thermometer (from the Latin word degree - step), prepositional (case), incendiary (glass), fire-breathing (mountains), refraction (of rays), balance, quicklime (lime), horizontal, vertical, square , acid, specific gravity, alum, spherical, electrical.[116]

M. V. Lomonosov on journalists and scientific journalism

Monument to M. V. Lomonosov in front of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University. Sculptor I. I. Kozlovsky and architect G. G. Lebedev. 1957

A very indicative example of the involvement of M. V. Lomonosov in various disciplines, his journalistic and educational activity, is “Discourse on the duties of journalists in presenting their essays, designed to maintain the freedom of philosophy” (1754). This is a fairly distinct zone of contact between his various interests, an indicator of his civil, moral position. The relevance of this "manifesto" is obvious, and - not only in relation to popular science publications - much more widely implied by these words ... [40]

Everyone knows how remarkable and rapid the progress of the sciences has been since the yoke of slavery was thrown off and replaced by the freedom of philosophy. But it is impossible not to know that the abuse of this freedom has caused very unpleasant misfortunes, the number of which would not be so great if the majority of writers did not turn the writing of their compositions into a trade and an instrument for earning a livelihood, instead of setting themselves the goal of a strict and correct explanation of the truth. From this stems so many risky propositions, so many strange systems, so many conflicting opinions, so many deviations and absurdities, that the sciences would long ago have suffocated under this huge heap if the scientific associations had not directed their joint efforts to resist this catastrophe. It has only just been noticed. that the literary stream carries in its waters both truth and falsehood, both indisputable and indisputable, and that philosophy, if it is not pulled out of this state, risks losing all its authority. This is where both the academies and, in the same way, the associations responsible for the publication of journals originated[40].

The reason for the discussion was the publication of a German journalist who distorted the meaning of Lomonosov's research, distorted the essence of the natural science work discussed in the review, to the opposite conclusions. As a result, this article had the appearance of a number of incompetent publications, "revealing the inconsistency of the scientist M.V. Lomonosov", - sharply critical attacks on him by other scientists. Here is a specific indication of M. V. Lomonosov himself on these errors of the reviewer[117]:

We must not lose sight of one last sign of haste, which our judge considers possible to combine with his severity, although they are incompatible. He imagines that Mr. Lomonosov, in his Addendum to Reflections on the Elasticity of Air, had mainly in mind to investigate "that property of elastic air, due to which its strength is proportional to its density." He errs and deceives others by making such a judgment. If he were a little more attentive, he would see and read that it is precisely the opposite that is at stake here, and that it is asserted that for the compaction of air it is necessary to have compressive forces to an even greater extent, in which the narrower limits this air is enclosed in, from which it follows that the density disproportionate to strength[40].

The scientist is aware of the strength in himself not only to defend the justice of his own judgments, but also to criticize the vulgar interpretation of the subject of natural science in general - he considers it his duty to give a program that he recommends following to those of the writing fraternity who undertake this responsible business without having proper knowledge, - what moral principles he should be guided by, taking the liberty of presenting and criticizing issues that are difficult to understand - including, as experience shows - the critic himself.

Assessment of the contribution to the development of the Russian language

“In Russian philological historiography, a scientifically based idea has developed about the fundamental role of M. V. Lomonosov in the process of formation of the Russian national literary language (along with the huge influence on the fate of our language by N. M. Karamzin and the classics of Russian literature, headed by A. S. Pushkin ). Prominent cultural figures of the late 18th - first third of the 19th centuries. and authoritative scholars of the history of the Russian literary language emphasized the role of Lomonosov as the great reformer of the Russian language, who determined the path of its development in the status of the national language.”[104]

Other humanities

Since the fifties, the scientist has been investing the fruits of reflection and research into the living form of his speeches delivered at meetings of the Academy and as a representative of science to the public - when he freely expresses his theoretical views, not embarrassed by the requirements of the completeness and rigor of an academic memoir - here, too, combining in his in the person of a speaker, naturalist, popularizer of scientific knowledge and a writer - he "gives instructions, expresses hopes, develops plans for new projectiles and experiments, brings ... the results of his own research in the laboratory and office"[30].

Story

The main work on history is Ancient Russian History[118], published after the author's death. M. V. Lomonosov begins the history of the Slavs and "Rosses" from the time of the Roman Empire. A comparative analysis of the ancient beliefs of the Eastern Slavs reveals many similar elements. In his opinion, the roots of the formation of the pagan pantheon are the same.

An abbreviated version of "Russian History" was published earlier by her "A Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy"[119]. Here, in a concise form, all the main events of Russian history from 862 to 1725 were set out. This book facilitated the use of chronicles and other historical documents, gave a brief but meaningful set of historical facts. Even during the life of Lomonosov, the Chronicler was translated into German, and then twice, in 1767 and 1771, was reprinted. In 1767 an English translation of it appeared[120].

Historiographers attribute Lomonosov to the "liberal-noble trend"[121][122] in Russian historiography of the 18th century. Lomonosov was a supporter of the Sarmatian theory of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, as evidenced by his work “Ancient Russian History” written by order of Empress Elizabeth; thus, he identified the Aorses and Roksans (Rossans) with the “Russians”, allegedly being in unity with the Alans, and considered them not the Iranian-speaking ancestors of the Ossetians[123], but Slavs, of the same root with the Varangians-Rosses[124] and refuted the then Norman theory , referring, among other things, to the “District Message of Patriarch Photius”. In his polemic with G.F. Miller, Lomonosov argued that it was politically dangerous to reject, on the basis of historical criticism, such officially approved legends as the visit of St. Andrew the First-Called to Russia[125], that Miller deliberately belittles the dignity of Russians, and that the task of historiography is to emphasize the greatness and antiquity of the Russian people, and the dark pages in its history should be kept silent (at the same time, Lomonosov agreed with Schlozer that it is unacceptable to invent historical facts); he spoke out against the publication of Miller's works on Russian history other than Siberian. Subsequently, there was an official investigation and a search at Miller's, in which Lomonosov personally participated[126]. Miller's opinion that the name of Lomonosov's native village, Kholmogory, came "from Golmgardia, which the Scandinavians called it," was refuted by Lomonosov's explanation: and the villages near it are called"[127]. Miller, even after a discussion with Lomonosov, recognizing the possibility of inviting the Varangians from the mouth of the Neman, insisted that Holmgard, as the Novgorod sagas are called, was originally called Kholmogory, "the capital of Biarmia." In Swedish and other Scandinavian languages, there are 12 very significant borrowings from Old Russian, for example, “lodhia” - lodya (cargo ship) [128], “torg” - bargaining, market, trading area, “besman” (“bisman”) - steelyard, pitschaft - seal, etc. Lomonosov argued that the Varangians were not a single ethnic group, but adventurers from the Baltic Sea of ​​​​different ethnic groups, and the Varangians, led by Rurik to reign in Novgorod, mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years, were not Scandinavians, but the Baltic Varangians of Slavic origin (he considered Slavs not only the Baltic Slavs, but also the Balts)[129][130]. Lomonosov made the history of the Slavs ancient, claiming that they participated in the Trojan War and then settled in the Veneto region[126].

At the same time, Lomonosov was the first to point out that if the Varangian rulers from the Rurik family were Scandinavians, then information about this would have been preserved in the epic of the modern peoples of Scandinavia, but they are not. He also pointed out the lack of borrowing of Scandinavian words in terms relating to navigation and trade in the Old Russian language. Lomonosov, focusing on the fact that Perun "was revered, being in filth, by the Russian princes of the Varangian family", and his cult was widespread on the Slavic coast of the Baltic Sea, came to the conclusion that Varangian Rus came from there and spoke the "Slavonic language" . Without denying the existence of Scandinavians among the Varangians[131], he was the first to point out the possibility of inviting Varangian princes from the people of Rus from the banks of the Neman. In 1761, his opponent G.F. Miller, when he finally published his speech in 1749, wrote in it about the possibility of inviting Goths-Roksolani to reign among the Slavs, who had moved to the banks of the Neman (the mouth of which was called Rusa), synthesizing Lomonosov’s various assumptions about the southern and Baltic origin of an ancient ruling dynasty. Thus, Lomonosov is the forerunner not only of anti-Normanism, but also of the formed classical Normanism of Miller and M. P. Pogodin, who also at the end of his life leaned towards the version of inviting the Varangians-Rus from the banks of the Rus (the mouth of the modern Neman), but considered them speaking Scandinavian languages ​​and, possibly, the remnants of the tribes that were the ancestors of modern Scandinavians and lived on the Neman, and then their descendants settled in Scandinavia. Pogodin also recognized the possibility that most of the Varangians were Slavs, as Lomonosov believed, but believed that the originality of the princes from the people of Rus was due to their Scandinavian-speaking.

Many of Lomonosov's views were supported not only by the Normanists, but by their opponents. According to G. Evers, who believed that we will never know the language of the Varangians-Rus from the ruling family and can only talk about their material culture, nevertheless “it seems to me unparalleled and unnatural that the conquering people change their own name to another used by their neighbor , and communicated this accepted name to the state founded by him "[132][133].

Lomonosov believed that Ptolemy called the Slavs stavans. He also considered possible the origin of the Slavs from the Amazons, whose name he translated as "self-praise" and explained the Slavicization of the Sarmatians by marriages with them. In his Nestor, Schlozer constantly refers to his predecessors and contemporaries and usually places Lomonosov next to Tatishchev, Miller, Shcherbatov. In the historiographic chapter, Schlözer puts Lomonosov in the first place and writes: “Here the professor of chemistry Lomonosov took pity and wrote the Brief Russian Chronicler. He began to work on this larger work, but brought it only up to 1054; after his death, the Academy printed this passage in 1766 (140 pp.) with my (though altered) preface. Both have been translated into German: The Brief Chronicler by Shtelin the Younger (1767), second edition 1771 (corrected by me, as stated in the preface to it), and Ancient Russian History by Buckmeister, which is also translated into French. Thus came out a fairly tolerable guide to Russian history.”[134]

Lomonosov made significant amendments to Voltaire's manuscript "History of Russia under Peter the Great" and prepared a significant part of the materials. In the IV and V chapters of his History, Voltaire reproduced Lomonosov’s work “Description of the Streltsy riots and the reign of Princess Sophia” almost verbatim, specifying this in the notes. Other contemporaries of Lomonosov, both Russian and Western, unlike Schlözer, did not appreciate his historical works highly, in particular, Voltaire considered the construction of the Slavs to the Trojans a method of medieval rather than modern historiography. A well-known feature of medieval literature was the compiling principle, which elevated the retelling of everything that was written on this issue before him to the highest merit of the scientist, and his opponents did not know Russian and Church Slavonic, and in this respect Lomonosov was more literate than them. But M. M. Shcherbatov, N. M. Karamzin and others did not attach any serious importance to his work. A new interest in the historical works of Lomonosov is associated with the soil movement of the 19th century. and with the “fight against cosmopolitanism” in the 1940s and 1950s, when the historical achievements of Lomonosov were placed above the rest[126].

Pedagogical ideas

Scientific foundations of education. He considered the main constituent elements of knowledge: sensory perception, theoretical generalizations and experimental verification of results. “Ideas are the representations of things or actions in our mind…”. "From observations to establish a theory, through theory to correct observations - there is the best way of all to find the truth." M. V. Lomonosov considered human nature hierarchically: “lower”, sensual, egoistic and “higher”, spiritual, patriotic.

Ideas on which the pedagogical theory of M. V. Lomonosov is built. The condition of the people can be improved through the spread of culture and education. He was a supporter of the classless education system up to the university. He defended the idea of ​​secular education and the acquisition by young generations of the foundations of scientific knowledge. He connected the formation of a person with the specific socio-historical conditions of his life, with the level of development of society as a whole.

Upbringing. He was a supporter of the principle of natural conformity. The educator should be guided by the factors of the natural natural development of the child. “More often natural talent without science than science without natural talent contributed to praise and virtue.”[135] He considered the natural features of children to be the basis and source of their development, recommended that teachers build training taking into account the inclinations of children. The purpose of education is the formation of a patriotic person, whose main qualities should be high morality, love for science, knowledge, diligence, selfless service to the motherland. He assigned a large role to education “... Young people have gentle morals, flexible passions in all directions, and their soft and wax-like thoughts are controlled by good education.” He proceeded in education from the principles of humanism and nationality. The method and condition of education is order and discipline. Moral education. Qualities of a morally educated person: patriotism, mercy, diligence. Vices of morality: laziness, stinginess, cowardice, craftiness, malice, hypocrisy, stubbornness, self-praise, etc.[136]

Education. He saw the organic connection between education and training, advocated the relationship between physical and moral education and mental development. He spoke for the first time in Russian pedagogy as a supporter of the synthesis of classical, natural science and real education. He was a supporter of the class-lesson system as the most productive for the development of the mind and memory. Was for homework and exams. In the learning process, he assigned a significant place to practice, setting up experiments, and noted the practical significance of knowledge. He valued the Russian language very highly, put forward the idea of ​​the educational value of the Russian language

Contribution to the development of pedagogy. For the first time in Russia, he developed a pedagogical theory, the methodological basis of which was the materialistic worldview, the distinction between science and religion. He was the organizer of science and education. Wrote the first grammar of the Russian language.

art

mosaics

Portrait of Peter I. Mosaic. Recruited by M. V. Lomonosov. 1754. Hermitage

M. V. Lomonosov demonstrates a portrait

The promotion of two central ideas associated with glassmaking, with the development of the science of glass founded by him, with the production of art glass, smalt - about the factory and about the mosaic workshop - was much more successful than the construction of the first laboratory [68].

At this time, M. V. Lomonosov was no longer some unknown adjunct, but a professor at the Academy. His discoveries are known abroad, his name is often heard at the court of the empress. “Groups of small academic people hostile to him do not dare to raise their voices and try to interfere and harm on the sly”[68].

The indomitable energy of the scientist, determination, contributed to the fact that his aspirations were destined to come true: in a special annex to his house on Vasilyevsky Island, a workshop for a set of mosaic paintings was opened, and in it he began classes with his first students - mosaic artists Matvey Vasilyevich Vasilyev and Efim Tikhonovich Melnikov. And M. V. Lomonosov himself was the first person in Russia who began to master the technique of mosaic typesetting on his own experience and with his own hands. He demonstrates the properties of an unmistakable artistic flair, the noble pathos of ideas; having a sober view of art, M. V. Lomonosov in the shortest possible time becomes the head of a group of artists who became famous for creating first-class mosaic paintings, comparable in quality to the best paintings[68][137].

Professor of Chemistry and Councilor of the Academy, Mr. Mikhail Lomonosov, began to manufacture an amazing stock of colored glass alloys of every shade[138] that one could think of, cut them into small and tiny cubes, prisms and cylinders, and at first successfully executed in mosaic the image of the Mother of God from the incomparable Solimena's original[139], two feet high and one and a half wide. For this successful experience, he earned the honor of the most merciful approval of Her Imperial Majesty and a large reward. And Her Majesty gave this picture a place among the icons in [her] apartments[137][140].

Jakob Stehlin reports on the “bust portrait of Peter I and his daughter [Anna] of blessed memory of the Duchess of Holstein…” created in 1756, he notes that “in the portrait of the Duchess, the laces are made of only small fragments of white lithic, and in general the seams of the set or the gaps between the pieces of smalt are not more and half as distinct as in the first paintings, where almost a little finger could be put between them. At the same time, V. K. Makarov finds that just “the portrait of Peter I executed by Lomonosov, typed in large, irregularly shaped pieces of chipped smalt, is a precious relic of the high artistic culture of the 18th century and gives one of the most expressive, spiritualized images of Peter” [137][141]. In 1757, M. V. Lomonosov presented to the Senate a program in which it is planned to build a mosaic monument over the grave of Peter the Great, and “to lay out the entire fortress church with mosaic pictures”[142]. In 1761, the Senate entrusted him with the execution of this beautiful, according to the same J. Shtelin, project, having paid several thousand rubles "in advance or in a row"[137].

Poltava battle

Main article: Battle of Poltava (mosaic by M. V. Lomonosov)

"Poltava battle". Mosaic of M. V. Lomonosov in the building of the Academy of Sciences. Saint Petersburg. 1762-1764

M.V. Lomonosov with all his energy set about implementing his plans, although “cut down”, but grandiose for the revival of mosaics, plans[143], he begins preparations for the creation of the monumental panel “The Battle of Poltava”, for the set of which it was necessary to paint a picture ( cardboard). A “good city painter L.Z. performing group "J. Shtelin. And they "blinded" 14 feet long and 9 feet high "a terribly beautiful and large picture, which was supposed to represent the Battle of Poltava" (German ein abscheulich schön und großes Gemählde)[137].

A mosaic of this size was completed in the late autumn of 1764, enclosed in a gilded chased copper frame. During the visit in the same year to the workshop on the Moika, the Austrian ambassador to inspect the "Poltava battle", M. V. Lomonosov was carried out of the house in armchairs, since the disease of his legs no longer allowed him to walk[68][137].

After the completion of this work, M. V. Lomonosov began a slightly smaller picture for the mosaic panel "The Conquest of Azov in 1696", but his death the following year interrupted work. The sketch created by Buchholz, along with three others that were supposed to follow it, M.V. Lomonosov intended to instruct Torelli to correct it, but he did not take the composition seriously, saying that the “correction” would turn into a complete alteration, to which M.V. Lomonosov swore, remaining with his intention ... [137].

Opinions about the talent of M. V. Lomonosov as an artist, if they do not diverge to the point of contradiction, then give his understanding, of course, in a different refraction. Art critic V.K. Makarov provides an assessment already from the height of a retrospective look at the role of his work, to a greater extent independently than J. Shtelin - with the inevitable, but also natural for his modern phenomenon of perception - discouragement and some skepticism, largely due to the unconscious , but with sincere sympathy for the energy and enthusiasm of a daring amateur who does not have capable performers. And if the first rightly compares Lomonosov’s mosaics with the “monumental mosaic painting of the new time”, which originates precisely in the scale and monumentality of what was conceived and implemented by M.V. Lomonosov, then the second states that for the sketches and cardboards that served this embodiment in nature, there were no worthy painters, reducing the role of mosaic to the applied function of imitation of painting, even if it was monumental, without realizing the value of its independent plastic features. At the same time, it was precisely the understanding of the peculiarities of the mosaic that allowed M. V. Lomonosov to realize that there was no need to thoroughly follow the cardboard in the material, when much would come to unity due to these unique plastic properties of the modular set.

In any case, it was Jacob Shtelin, who, of course, being shocked, but also wanting to believe in the expediency of what he had planned, warned M.V. Lomonosov against creating a mosaic according to the “miserable picture” that the prepared work represented[145]; on the other hand, he, like many others, including professional artists, was probably not able to fully present what was clearly seen by M.V. ; not knowing how to draw, M. V. Lomonosov, nevertheless, had a very valuable gift for the artist of generalization, and the ability to abstract gave him a broad vision of the conditional, monumental - freedom from naturalistic literalism, the snares of which were burdened by the perception of the "artistic truth" of his opponents in this area, including J. Shtelina. A great connoisseur of the latter’s work, K.V. Malinovsky, objectively characterizes the level and ability of his understanding of the activities of M.V. followed the tastes of his era and could not be an impartial arbiter. Lomonosov was closer to the current understanding of the picturesqueness of a painting and, accordingly, of a mosaic”[68][137][146].

The first contemporary researcher of M. V. Lomonosov’s work gives an exhaustive catalog of his heritage in mosaic art - no other work devoted to this contains such a completeness of documentary information about what he did. Famous portraits of Peter I and P.I. Shuvalov, “The Battle of Poltava”, several other works familiar from various expositions that have been preserved or mentioned by researchers are named here: “Apostle Peter” (1761), St. Alexander Nevsky (1757-1758), chest profile of Catherine II (1763), portrait of Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich (1758-1759), portrait of Grand Duchess Elizabeth Petrovna (1758-1760), portrait of Count M. I. Vorontsov (1765); but Jacob Shtelin mentions a number of works by M. V. Lomonosov himself and his workshop, not mentioned by any other sources: a portrait of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, two landscapes (1765-1766), a portrait of Count G. G. Orlov (1764), St. Peter (from a painting by P.-P. Rubens)[137].

Summing up this last section of M. V. Lomonosov’s work, which completes his service to both science and art, N. N. Kachalov notes his main results in these words[68]:

A truly scientific method of experimental research has been developed and introduced into laboratory practice, subject to strict constancy of experimental conditions, with accurate consideration of observed phenomena, with systematic storage of samples and with the maintenance of a laboratory journal.

The first, strictly scientific, capital study of the effect of various mineral dyes on glass was carried out, and the beginnings of a methodology for studying the effect of glass composition on its properties were laid.

With an extremely limited number of mineral dyes known at that time, the formulation of numerous colored glasses was developed using the most advanced methods of chemical laboratory experimentation.

The richest palette of mosaic smalts has been developed.

The introduction of the method of melting colored glass and production was carried out, as a result of which domestic glass factories began to produce variously colored art products.

A glass factory was built, advanced in terms of equipment and working methods, designed for the production of various artistic products from colored glass according to the technology developed by Lomonosov.

Relations with the Synod

In 1743, M.V. Lomonosov wrote "Morning Meditation on the Majesty of God", containing hypotheses about processes in the sun, which received scientific confirmation only in the middle of the 19th century, and "Evening Meditation on the Majesty of God in the Case of the Great Northern Lights", which was repeatedly published during the life of the author; The second ode is of particular value, as mentioned above, for the scientific explanation of the nature of the northern lights (long before and more correctly than B. Franklin). M. V. Lomonosov speaks from the standpoint of a naturalist, never and nowhere denying the existence of God[40].

But at the end of 1756 - the beginning of March 1757, he wrote the anti-clerical "Hymn to the Beard" directed against obscurantism - presumably addressed to one specific person - Archbishop Sylvester Kulyabka (according to M.V. Lomonosov, when he annoyed "one of these empty beards" , “and others” stood up for her). During the life of the scientist, the poem was not published, it was distributed in lists; the whereabouts of the original is unknown[147][148]. In response to this satire, perceived by the clergy at their own expense in general [149], on March 6, 1757, the Synod in the most submissive report to the Empress made a request “to destroy such seductive and abusive libels and publicly burn them, and henceforth to repair the ban, and the aforementioned Lomonosov for proper to send the volume of exhortations and corrections to the Synod. Assumptions about schismatics as the central object of satire, despite the existing indirect grounds for this, have long been recognized as untenable - this is also evidenced by the fact that this satire affected precisely the highest clergy (see above). The request of the Synod was left without consequences, and the report, “like the previous complaints against Lomonosov, did not bring him any responsibility, and a few days later ... he was appointed adviser to the academic office”[40][148][150].

Already after the appeal of the Synod, taking advantage of the opportunity to hurt M.V. Lomonosov, on the same occasion, the humanist V.K. in his youth suspected by the clergy of atheism[40][148][150].

A later epigram poem on the same subject is known, also attributed to M. V. Lomonosov (the location of the original is unknown). First published by P. Pekarsky[151][152][153]

O fear! Oh God! thunder! you pulled your pants

Which are under the belt hanging from Satan.

You see, he is raging [and] angry,

Dirava red nose, Chaldean stove, smoking

The complex relations of M.V. Lomonosov with the Synod were due to the formal conflict of scientific ideas that had developed by that time and church dogmas - the same desire of the scientist, consistently guided by the logic of the scientific worldview, to counteract obscurantism. Suffice it to say that the Synod banned the book of B. B. de Fontenel, published in St. Petersburg in 1740 in translation, “Conversations about the Many Worlds”, which expounded the Copernican system; the translation of A. Pope's book, An Essay on Man (1757), which is similar in content, was mutilated by censorship.

In The Phenomenon of Venus, M. V. Lomonosov writes:

Some ask, if there are people like us living on the planets, then what faith are they? Was the gospel preached to them? Are they baptized into the faith of Christ? Sim is given a question answer. In the southern great lands, whose shores in modern times are almost only marked by navigators, the inhabitants there, as well as in other unknown lands, the inhabitants, people in appearance, language and all behaviors are excellent from us, what faith? And who preached the gospel to them? If anyone wants to know about it or wants to convert and baptize them, then let him, according to the gospel word (“do not acquire gold, nor silver, nor copper with your belts, nor feasts on the way, nor two robes, nor boots, nor a rod”) there will go. And as soon as he finishes his sermon, then after that let him go to Venus for that. If only his labor had not been in vain. Maybe the people there did not sin in Adam, and for that all of the consequences are not needed. “There are many ways to salvation. Many abodes are in heaven." With all this, the Christian faith stands immutable. It cannot be opposed to God's creation, God's creation is inferior, except for those who do not delve into God's creations.

Being a staunch supporter of the heliocentric model and assumptions about the plurality of inhabited worlds, M. V. Lomonosov saw indirect confirmation of the latter in the presence of an atmosphere near Venus that he established. In his "Addendum" to "The Phenomenon of Venus", the scientist raises the question: do these ideas contradict the teachings of the church? Comparing quotes from Holy Scripture and Orthodox theologians, he shows the difference between the tasks of religion and science - they have no reason to oppose each other. He writes very convincing verses for the “Addendum” “Two astronomers happened together at a feast ....”, however, allowing some liberties: Tycho Brahe should have been in the place of Ptolemy - “The other, that the Sun leads all the planets ...” - this his system, not Ptois his system, not Ptolemy's[82][83].

In his project “On the Preservation and Reproduction of the Russian People” (1761 [154]), M. V. Lomonosov speaks about inconsistencies in the understanding of some church customs, but these considerations, apart from the ideas of postponing the days of fasting and, accordingly, church holidays, in no way contradict the opinions of reasonable Orthodox pastors and church fathers on this matter (for example, about immoderate conversation, dogmatism and literalism in the performance of certain rites, etc.)[155][156].

Performance evaluation

Summing up the results of his activities, approximately in May 1764, M. V. Lomonosov chooses from all his work what seems to him the most important. The result of this analysis was a description of nine "discoveries", of which four (1-3, 6) are related to research based on his corpuscular theory and the hypothesis of the rotational motion of the particles that make up the body (3 - physical chemistry, the theory of solutions), the rest are to mineralogy and geology (4), the study of electrical phenomena (5) and gravimetry (7-9)[40][157][158].

Overview of the most important discoveries that Mikhailo Lomonosov tried to enrich the natural sciences

An overview of the most important discoveries that Mikhailo Lomonosov, State Councilor E.I., tried to enrich the natural sciences with. v. of all Russia, a full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and an ordinary professor of chemistry, an honorary member of the Academy of Arts, established there, as well as the Royal Stockholm Academy and the Bologna Institute.

one.

The New Commentaries of the St. Petersburg Academy, Volume I, published Reflections on the Cause of Heat and Cold, where it is proved that the strength of heat and its various tensions come from the internal rotational motion of the body’s own matter, accelerated in different ways, and cold is explained by the slow rotation of particles. After a priori and a posteriori proof of all this, a clear understanding and geometric knowledge of this fundamental phenomenon in nature, which constitutes the essence of other phenomena, is exposed to daylight, and vague conjectures about some wandering, lawlessly wandering calorific matter are eliminated.

2.

The dissertation on the cause of the elasticity of air leads the aspirant to a more justified natural science to a mechanical explanation of the cause of elasticity, excluding the assumption that the cause lies in elastic particles, but consistent in all its conclusions with our theory of heat.

3.

Based on chemical experiments and physical principles, the theory of solutions is the first example and model for the foundation of true physical chemistry, especially since the phenomena are explained according to the solid laws of mechanics, and not on the liquid basis of attraction.

4.

In the physical republic there was no clear idea of ​​the phenomena produced by nature in the mineral kingdom, in the bowels of the earth. Metallurgists, when they had to turn to other areas of knowledge, did not go further than practical chemistry and usually limited themselves to references to hidden properties, until the aforementioned Professor Lomonosov, armed with physics and geometry, in his dissertation On the Lightness of Metals (New Comments, vol. I) and in the Word about the birth of metals from the shaking of the earth, uttered in a public meeting ... of the year, did not show how far one can go in this way in revealing and thoroughly explaining the underground secrets.

5.

In his Discourse on electrical phenomena occurring in the air, on the basis of the descent of the upper atmosphere into the lower one, which he discovered, explained and proved, quite acceptable (if you don’t like to call them undoubted) explanations are given for sudden colds, lightning forces, northern lights, tails of magnificent comets, etc. From these causes, the cause of the northern lights was established by experiments and observations during the winter just past, which will be discussed below.

6.

In the Sermon on the Origin of Light and Colors, spoken in the public meeting of the Academy ... of the year, it is shown how firmly and correctly the incomparable men Cartesius and Mariotte established the theory of light and the number of colors. Here, too, a new elementary system is proposed and a new hitherto unknown property of primary elements is introduced, designated by the name "illumination"; it is claimed that it is the cause of very many natural phenomena due to the smallest corpuscles. The author will soon and very thoroughly confirm this with new evidence.

7.

In a discourse on the greater accuracy of the sea route[159], read in the public collection of the Academy ... of the year, in §... the centroscopic pendulum is described and at the end a sample of records showing its oscillations is added. Observations made to this day for more than five years have proved with certainty the changes in the center of gravity, since the latter are 1) periodic, 2) approximately correspond to lunar movements, 3) at any time of the year, in any state of the atmosphere, with a heated and unheated stove, up to and after noon always give the same periods in observations.

8

In this work, in §, a sealed barometer or, if you like, an Amontons air thermometer is described. Something curious is noticed in this instrument, namely, that changes in the height of mercury (although the usual opening of the vessel is sealed tightly and the effect of the changing gravity of the atmosphere is completely excluded) for the most part agree with the change in the ordinary barometer, which very clearly proves the change in the height of an ordinary barometer, not only from different atmospheric pressure. This does not depend on the difference in temperature and the change in the elasticity of the air contained in the vessel due to this, since a thermometer located near or even inside the vessel shows something else. Anyone can do this experiment by soldering tightly the open leg of the barometer. The reason for this phenomenon is of great importance in meteorological matters.

9.

From the fact that the changes in the readings of the centroscopic pendulum and the center to which weighty bodies tend to have been established in an indisputable way, it necessarily follows that the gravity of bodies is not constant. In order to investigate this, the author has taken care of the device of a machine containing an elastic steel coil spring used in large clocks; after all friction has been eliminated, it feels and clearly shows on the scale, at 26 ounces, an increase in weight of 1/10 grain[80][160].

A. S. Pushkin characterizes the activities of Lomonosov as follows:

Lomonosov embraced all branches of education. The thirst for science was the strongest passion of this passionate soul. Historian, rhetorician, mechanic, chemist, mineralogist, artist and poet, he experienced everything and penetrated everything: he was the first to delve into the history of the fatherland, approve the rules of its public language, give laws and models of classical eloquence, with the unfortunate Richmann foresees the discovery of Franklin, establishes a factory, he builds colossus himself, gives artistic mosaic works, and finally reveals to us the true sources of our poetic language[110]

A. S. Pushkin also said about Lomonosov:

Lomonosov was a great man. Between Peter I and Catherine II, he alone is an original associate of enlightenment. He created the first university. It would be better to say that it was our first university itself.

Study and popularization of Lomonosov's heritage

Attempts to study the biography of M. V. Lomonosov were made as early as 1768. Academicians I. I. Lepekhin and N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky from 1768 to 1772 inclusive studied Lomonosov’s homeland (Ozeretskovsky’s notes on the Dvina land, Kholmogory), as well as the biography of the scientist, they learned about his family and childhood years.

Then second-major P.I. Chelishchev visited Kurostrov in 1791, writing down the memoirs of Dvinyan Varfolomeev and neighbors about Lomonosov’s youth in his small homeland, and even erected the first wooden monument to the scientist (having no more funds). From the 1860s-1870s until the beginning of the 20th century, the interest of researchers in the heritage, the most important contribution to the culture of Russia, M.V. Lomonosov increased, and his natural science works were analyzed. The works of P. S. Bilyarsky, A. A. Kunik, A. S. Budilovich, P. P. Pekarsky and V. I. Lamansky marked the beginning of the transformation of the study of Lomonosov’s heritage into a scientific discipline.

In the work on the academic biography of M. V. Lomonosov, materials collected by A. A. Kunik were used. Based on them, the Collection of Materials for the History of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in the 18th Century (1865) was also published, which is dedicated to the life and literary work of V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov.

In 1865, D. M. Perevoshchikov's book "Lomonosov's Works on Physics and Physical Geography" was published. The mathematician and astronomer D. M. Perevoshchikov was one of the first to conduct systematic research and popularize the scientific heritage of Lomonosov. Later, A. S. Budilovich published the works “On the scientific activity of Lomonosov in natural science and philology” (1869), “Lomonosov as a writer. Collection of materials for the consideration of the author's activity of Lomonosov "(1871).

B. N. Menshutkin did a great deal of work on the study of the natural science body of the works of M. V. Lomonosov, who, as a result of his activities, made it possible to get an idea of ​​both the works published in rare editions and the works of M. V. Lomonosov not published at all, having found them, translating from Latin and publishing laboratory journals, manuscripts and research programs of the scientist. Being himself a chemist and historian of science, Menshutkin gave a professional assessment of the contribution of M.V. Lomonosov to the development of ideas on the conservation of the mass of matter. He published the monographs Lomonosov as a Physical Chemist (1904) and The First Russian Scientist (1915), the collections Lomonosov's Manuscripts at the USSR Academy of Sciences (1937) and M. V. Lomonosov's Works on Physics and Chemistry (1936). B. N. Menshutkin edited the collected works of M. V. Lomonosov, carried out in 1891-1948. These works were an important contribution to understanding the role of the natural scientist, not only in the main directions of his research, but also from the point of view of the methodology of science.

The President of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine V. I. Vernadsky did a lot to understand the activities of M. V. Lomonosov and to properly assess it, whose name among Russian naturalists rightfully coexists with the name of the first Russian scientist (“Lomonosov of the 20th century”), V. I. Vernadsky headed the heritage study commission on the eve of the 150th anniversary of his first laboratory.

The term "Lomonosovovedenie" was fixed in science. Director of the Academic Museum of M.V. Lomonosov E.P. Karpeev defines Lomonosov studies as:

... studying the biography, scientific heritage and contribution of Lomonosov to science and the cultural process ... Lomonosov was the most complex phenomenon of his time, combining folk roots, religiosity, monarchical sentiments, natural scientific rationalism, enlightenment, and many others. etc., therefore, in Lomonosov studies, from the very moment of its inception, the most diverse, sometimes opposite assessments of his life and work were expressed. The beginning of “Lomonosov studies” can be considered the assessments of contemporaries that appeared immediately after the death of L.[161].

In the Northern (Arctic) Federal University, located in the city of Arkhangelsk, there are disciplines "Lomonosov" in a number of specialties [source not specified 2008 days].

In 1992, the Interregional Lomonosov Foundation was established in Arkhangelsk, one of the main tasks of which is educational activities. The main idea underlying the organization of the fund is the continuation of the selfless activity of M. V. Lomonosov, aimed at reviving the best traditions of Russian science, culture, and education in the Russian North[162]. At the initiative of the Foundation, a five-volume Pomor Encyclopedia is being prepared, in 2006 the Lomonosov House Scientific and Cultural Center was organized in Arkhangelsk, and a competition named after M.V. Lomonosov for research and implementation works on environmental protection problems in the Arkhangelsk region was created.

M. V. Lomonosov in the image of artists

Bust of M. V. Lomonosov. Sculptor F.I. Shubin. Biscuit. Copy. 1792. Museum of M. V. Lomonosov. Saint Petersburg

Academician P. L. Kapitsa writes: “A good portrait of Lomonosov has not come down to us. The portraits and engravings that are usually reproduced are made posthumously and are copies from the same original, painted by an unknown and poorly gifted artist. Only the bust by Shubin, who personally knew Lomonosov, gives us his living and spiritualized image"[163].

Truth and legends about M. V. Lomonosov

M. V. Lomonosov was an addictive nature, sometimes - ardent; quite authoritative sources point to examples of intemperance on his part in relation to equals, about “impudence” and “disrespectful actions”[14]. The history of his stay in Germany has preserved evidence of the "disorder" of his life there. The scandalous episodes of his Petersburg time are already known ... “... Grabbing the blockhead on which wigs are hung, and began to beat everyone and ordered his servant to beat everyone to death ... ”- announces his “victim”, embellishing his story with heartbreaking details about this “communal” clash with "assault" and "beating half to death", which turned for M.V. Lomonosov into an investigation and a short conclusion ... Not only anecdotes, but also testimonies have been preserved about all this. But, as they say, “what is allowed to Jupiter…”[14].

In his judgments and assessments, he is direct - he does not resort to euphemisms and “smoothing corners” when he writes about the intrigues and obscene insinuations of his ill-wishers: “... Taubert's room dog - Rumovsky. Taubert, as soon as he sees a dog in the street that barks at me, is immediately ready to hang this beast around his neck and kiss her under the tail. And he does this until the need for her barking is over; then he will throw her into the mud and set other dogs on her ”(letter to L. Euler; February 21, 1765) [14].

Feature[164]

Physical qualities: outstanding strength and almost athletic strength. For example, the fight against three attacked sailors, whom he defeated and took off their clothes.

Stormy - a way of life of the common people.

Mental qualities: greedy for knowledge, researcher, striving to discover new things.

Moral qualities: uncouth, with subordinates and domestic strict. Striving for excellence, disdain for equals.

Here is the episode with the robbers in a different version[165]:

Once, on a beautiful autumn evening, he went for a walk alone to the sea along Bolshoy Prospekt of Vasilyevsky Island. On the return journey, when it was already getting dark, and he was passing through the forest along a cut-out avenue, three sailors suddenly jumped out of the bushes and attacked him. Not a soul was in sight. He defended himself against these three robbers with the greatest courage: he hit one of them so that he could not only get up, but even could not come to his senses for a long time; another was so struck in the face that he, covered in blood, ran with all his might into the bushes; and the third was no longer difficult for him to overcome; he knocked him down (meanwhile the first, waking up, fled into the forest), and holding him under his feet, threatened that he would immediately kill him if he did not reveal to him the names of the other two robbers and what they wanted to do with him. This one admitted that they only wanted to rob him and then let him go. “Ah, scoundrels,” cried Lomonosov, so I will rob you!” And the thief had to immediately take off his jacket, canvas coat and trousers, and tie it all into a knot with his own belt. Then Lomonosov hit the still half-naked sailor on the legs, so that he fell and could hardly move, and he himself, putting a bundle on his shoulders, went home with his trophies, as with conquered prey ...

In 1748, Lomonosov wrote an ode in honor of the next anniversary of the accession of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, for which he was awarded two thousand rubles. According to legend, at that time there were only copper money in the treasury and the award was issued by them. It took two wagons to deliver the award to Lomonosov.