LvivLviv is a city in western Ukraine, the center of Lviv Region, Lviv District, Lviv Community, and the center of the Lviv agglomeration. It is a national-cultural, educational, and scientific center, a major industrial center, and a major transportation hub; in print it is called the capital of Galicia and Western Ukraine.
Lviv was founded by the Galician prince and king of Russia Daniil Romanovich in the middle of the 13th century, presumably around 1256 it becomes the capital of the Galicia-Volyn principality. After the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, from 1775 to 1918, the city was the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, formed by the Habsburgs, who considered themselves successors to the kings of Russia and who held the title of kings of Galicia and Lodomeria. During the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, it became the capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, but at the end of the Polish-Ukrainian War was annexed to Poland. In June-September 1941, it was the actual seat of the Ukrainian state government, which was organized after the proclamation of the Act of restoration of the Ukrainian state in World War II.
In 1998 the Historical Center of Lviv was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In 2009, it was awarded the title of the cultural capital of Ukraine. The city periodically takes top places in ratings of tourist and investment attractiveness. In 2012, it was one of the four Ukrainian cities that hosted the European Football Championship "Euro - 2012". City Day is celebrated on the 1st Saturday in May.dessa - A city and community in the Northern Black Sea region of southwestern Ukraine. Administrative center of Odessa region and Odessa district. The main naval base of the Ukrainian Navy.
KhersonKherson (Ukr. Kherson) is a city in the south of Ukraine, the administrative, industrial and cultural center of Kherson region and Kherson district (until 2020 it was a city of regional subordination). Temporary location of the Presidential Mission in Crimea. It is located on the right (high) bank of the Dnieper River, near its inflow into the Dnieper estuary of the Black Sea. The largest seaport and river port on the Dnieper.
Population of the city on January 1, 2019 is 289 thousand permanent residents[2], and within the boundaries of the city council - including settlements subordinated to the district councils of the city - 330 and 334.5 thousand people, respectively[2].
Distance to Kyiv by rail - 648 km (through Znamenka, Nikolaev). Large railway junction (lines to Nikolaev, Snigiryovka, Dzhankoy), Kherson sea trade port and river port, airport, there are also railway, river and bus terminals. It is an important economic center in the south of Ukraine.
History of Kherson
In 1737, during the Russo-Turkish War (1735-1739) on the right bank of the Dnieper was built a fortification of the Russian army Alexander Shantz[3].
After the victory in the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) there was a need for a shipyard on the Black Sea to build a full-fledged military fleet. To determine the place was organized an expedition led by Vice-Admiral A. N. Senyavin, commander of the Azov flotilla. It was he who proposed to build ships' hulls under the cover of the fortification of Alexander Shantz, and after that, launching them into the estuary, equip them with guns, masts and rigging in the area of the Deep Harbor. Senyavin's plan was approved by the highest rescript in December 1775.
1778-1917
Bilihovychi on the General map of Ukraine in 1648 by Guillaume de Beauplan
On June 18, 1778, Catherine II signed a decree on the foundation of the fortress and shipyard[4] and already on October 19, 1778, the fortress, shipyard and city, which was named Kherson after Chersonesos Taurica, were founded[3][5].
Kherson was destined to become the cradle and the first base of the Black Sea Fleet and the economic and political center of the region. The founder of the city, and later its governor-general was a favorite of Empress Catherine II, the famous statesman and military leader GA Potemkin[6]. Construction of the fortress and the city was entrusted to the general-tseihmester I.A. Hannibal.
Ochakov gate and ramparts, 1784.
Also in Kherson the building of the Black Sea Fleet had begun. Under the command of A. N. Senyavin was built the first command post and barracks for sailors. Exactly according to the scheme suggested by him (to build ship hulls in the shipyard, launch them in estuary and equip with guns, masts and rigging already there) the ships in Kherson Admiralty were being constructed until its liquidation in 1827. On September 16, 1783 the first big ship, 66 cannons, first battleship of the Russian Empire Black Sea Fleet, the Glory of Ekaterina, was launched from the slipway of the Admiralty Shipyard.
In the construction of the fortress and the city, along with workers involved soldiers and sailors. According to the plan, the fortress was surrounded by earth ramparts, in two layers lined with stone, and a ditch, which if necessary could be filled with water from the Dnieper. Inside the fortress were built Admiralty, arsenal, military cathedral, mint, Potemkin Palace and a number of other buildings[7]. The engineer colonel N. I. Korsakov (1749-1788) became the chief builder of the fortress and the city from February 1, 1784.
In 1784 Kherson became a county town.
In 1787-1791, the construction of fortifications of the city led by A. V. Suvorov,[4] later Governor General approved the continuation of the construction of fortifications on the project I. M. Deribas (who was appointed commander of the Kherson landing troops).
In 1790 the first Black Sea cannon foundry was opened here. By the end of XVIII century Kherson played an important role in the development of internal and external economic ties between Russia and its neighbors. Trade with France, Italy, Spain and other European countries was carried out via Kherson port. When Empress Catherine II traveled through the south, even foreigners were surprised by the fortress of Kherson.
Map of Kherson at the end of XIX century.
After the Nikolaev port (where the Admiralty was transferred) and the foundation of Odessa in 1794, the importance of Kherson as a port and shipyard decreased[3].
In 1803, Kherson became the center of Kherson province[3][5]. Emmanuel Osipovich de Richelieu, who in 1805 became governor-general of the Novorossiysk region, played an important role in the city's fate at that time, deciding to direct the tax from the wine trade in Novorossia to the development of Kherson, thereby maintaining its importance and role as a regional center. The coat of arms and flag of the city were approved.
St. Catherine's Cathedral was built on the order of Potemkin. He was buried in it in 1791.
In 1813 the first district school - state primary school was founded, two years later - the provincial male gymnasium. In 1834 a school of merchant shipping was opened, in 1874 - zemstvo agricultural college. In 1838 the first newspaper appeared in the city - "Kherson Gubernskiye Vedomosti".
Till 1850s Kherson was a center of wool procurement and processing of agricultural products[7], in 1850s the development of industry began[5] - the first iron foundry was built[5], also in 1859 the city had 11 wool washing plants, 10 tallow mills, 6 candle and sugar factories, 2 sawmills, 10 brick factories[7].
After 1861 economic growth began. In the second half of the XIX century the theater, library were built, archaeological and natural history museums were created.
Potemkin's grave in Kherson in the Catherine Cathedral
With the spread of large-capacity vessels and steamships the importance of the shallow port of Kherson (the depth of approach did not exceed 2.6 m) continued to decline,[7] and only after the deepening of the bottom in the bed of the Dnieper in the 1890s[3], 3], by 1905 the depth of approach was raised to 5.5 m, and by 1908 to 7.3 m, Kherson regained its significance as a seaport, important not only for coastal, but also for long-distance navigation[6][7].
In 1898, an agricultural machinery factory began operating in the city[5].
In 1902, the city committee of the RSDLP began its activities[4].
During the 1905 revolution, workers' strikes[7] and soldiers' unrest (armed action by soldiers of the 10th disciplinary battalion) took place in Kherson[5]. In 1907, a railway line connected Kherson with the country's major cities, and in 1908 the city's first power plant gave current.
In 1913, the cargo turnover of Kherson port was 1,114 thousand tons[7]. In 1914, over 100 enterprises (2 shipyards, 3 iron foundries, 4 large sawmills, 5 tanneries, a tobacco factory, 9 printing houses, 2 breweries and other small enterprises) with 8.5 thousand workers were operating in Kherson.
In 1991
Modern Kherson is an administrative, industrial and cultural center of Kherson region.
The city is divided into three administrative districts: Suvorovsky - the central district of the city, Dneprovsky - the industrial district, and Korabelny - the main industrial district.
In 2006 Kherson airport received international status and became "Kherson" International Airport.
Climate
The climate in Kherson is typical for the climate of the steppe south of Ukraine and is arid-steppe continental. Winters are mild and snow is rare or absent. Spring comes early, usually as early as the end of February. Summers are hot, dry and long. The autumn is usually in October and lasts until December. Since Kherson is 50 km from the Black Sea, the transitional seasons are long.
Ukraine (Ukrainian: Україна, romanized: Ukraïna, pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ] (audio speaker iconlisten)) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest country by area in Europe after Russia, which it borders to the east and north-east.[a] Ukraine also shares borders with Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; Romania and Moldova to the south; and has a coastline along the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. It spans an area of 603,628 km2 (233,062 sq mi),[b] with a population of 41.3 million,[c] and is the eighth-most populous country in Europe. The nation's capital and largest city is Kyiv.
The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC. During the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus' forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation into several principalities in the 13th century and the devastation created by the Mongol invasion, the territorial unity collapsed and the area was contested, ruled, and divided by a variety of powers, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Tsardom of Russia. A Cossack Hetmanate emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, but its territory was eventually split between Poland and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination emerged, and the internationally recognized Ukrainian People's Republic was declared on 23 June 1917. After World War II, the western part of Ukraine merged into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, and the whole country became a part of the Soviet Union. Ukraine gained its independence in 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Following its independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state;[11] it formed a limited military partnership with Russia and other CIS countries while also establishing a partnership with NATO in 1994. In 2013, after the government of President Viktor Yanukovych had decided to suspend the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement and seek closer economic ties with Russia, a several-months-long wave of demonstrations and protests known as the Euromaidan began, which later escalated into the Revolution of Dignity that led to the overthrow of Yanukovych and the establishment of a new government. These events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014 and the War in Donbas in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied for the economic component of the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the European Union.[12]
Ukraine is a developing country ranking 74th in the Human Development Index. It is the poorest country in Europe, suffering from a very high poverty rate as well as severe corruption.[13][14] However, because of its extensive fertile farmlands, Ukraine is one of the largest grain exporters in the world.[15][16] It also maintains the third-largest military in Europe after Russia and France.[17] Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers: legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The country is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the GUAM organization, and the Lublin Triangle, and is one of the founding states of the CIS, even though it never became a member of the organization.
Etymology and orthography
Main article: Name of Ukraine
There are different hypotheses as to the etymological origins of the name of Ukraine. The most widespread hypothesis theorizes that it comes from the old Slavic term for "borderland".[18]
"The Ukraine" used to be a frequently used form in English throughout the 20th century,[19] but since the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine in 1991, "the Ukraine" has become less common in the English-speaking world, and style-guides warn against its use in professional writing.[20][21] According to U.S. ambassador William Taylor, "the Ukraine" now implies disregard for the country's sovereignty.[22] The official Ukrainian position is that the usage of "'the Ukraine' is incorrect both grammatically and politically.
Early history
Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Pokrov, dated to the fourth century BC
Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites (43,000–45,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone dwelling.[24][25] The territory is also considered to be the likely location for the human domestication of the horse.[26][27][28][29]
Modern human settlement in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.[30][31] By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture flourished in wide areas of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[32] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia.[33]
Beginning in the sixth century BC, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus, were founded on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. These colonies thrived well into the sixth century AD. The Goths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s AD. In the seventh century AD, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.[34]
In the fifth and sixth centuries, the Antes were located in the territory of what is now Ukraine. The Antes were the ancestors of Ukrainians: White Croats, Severians, Polans, Drevlyans, Dulebes, Ulichians, and Tiverians. Migrations from Ukraine throughout the Balkans established many South Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to the Ilmen lakes, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichs, and Radimichs, the groups ancestral to the Russians. After an Avar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[35]
Golden Age of Kyiv
Main articles: Kievan Rus' and Kingdom of Ruthenia
The baptism of Grand Prince Vladimir in 988 led to the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus'.
Kievan Rus' was founded in the territory of the Eastern Polans, who lived among the rivers Ros, Rosava, and Dnieper. Russian historian Boris Rybakov came from studying the linguistics of Russian chronicles to the conclusion that the Polans union of clans of the mid-Dnieper region called itself by the name of one of its clans, "Ros", that joined the union and was known at least since the 6th century far beyond the Slavic world.[36] The origin of the Kyiv princedom is of a big debate and there exist at least three versions depending on interpretations of the chronicles.[37] In general it is believed that Kievan Rus' included the central, western and northern part of modern Ukraine, Belarus, the far eastern strip of Poland and the western part of present-day Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.[38]
During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.[39] It laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.[40] Kyiv, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'. In 12th–13th centuries on efforts of Yuri the Long Armed, in area of Zalesye were founded several cities similar in name as in Kievan Rus' such as Vladimir on the Klyazma/Vladimir of Zalesye[41] (Volodymyr), Galich of Merya (Halych), Pereslavl of Zalesye (Pereyaslav of Ruthenian), Pereslavl of Erzya.
Furthest extent of Kievan Rus', 1054–1132
The Varangians later assimilated into the Slavic population and became part of the first Rus' dynasty, the Rurik dynasty.[40] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid kniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[42]
The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[40] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.[43]
The 13th-century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kyiv was totally destroyed in 1240.[44] On today's Ukrainian territory, the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi arose, and were merged into the state of Galicia–Volhynia.[45]
Danylo Romanovych (Daniel I of Galicia or Danylo Halytskyi) son of Roman Mstyslavych, re-united all of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia and Rus' ancient capital of Kyiv. Danylo was crowned by the papal archbishop in Dorohychyn 1253 as the first king of all Rus'. Under Danylo's reign, the Kingdom of Ruthenia was one of the most powerful states in east central Europe.[46]
Foreign domination
See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire
Following the Mongol invasion of Rus', much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania and after the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, illustrated here in 1619.
In the mid-14th century, upon the death of Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia, king Casimir III of Poland initiated campaigns (1340–1366) to take Galicia-Volhynia. Meanwhile, the heartland of Rus', including Kyiv, became the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ruled by Gediminas and his successors, after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine was ruled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. By 1392 the so-called Galicia–Volhynia Wars ended. Polish colonisers of depopulated lands in northern and central Ukraine founded or re-founded many towns.
In the Black sea cities of modern-day Ukraine, the Republic of Genoa founded numerous colonies, from the mid-13th century to the late 15th century, including the cities of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi ("Moncastro") and Kiliya ("Licostomo"), the colonies used to be large commercial centers in the region, and were headed by a consul (a representative of the Republic).[47]
In 1430 Podolia was incorporated under the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Podolian Voivodeship. In 1441, in the southern Ukraine, especially Crimea and surrounding steppes, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate.[48]
Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Hetman of Ukraine, established an independent Ukrainian Cossack state after the uprising in 1648 against Poland.
In 1569 the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and much Ukrainian territory was transferred from Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming Polish territory de jure. Under the demographic, cultural and political pressure of Polonisation, which began in the late 14th century, many landed gentry of Polish Ruthenia (another name for the land of Rus) converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.[49] Deprived of native protectors among Rus nobility, the commoners (peasants and townspeople) began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks, who by the 17th century became devoutly Orthodox. The Cossacks did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies, including the Polish state and its local representatives.[50]
Formed from Golden Horde territory conquered after the Mongol invasion the Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th century; in 1571 it even captured and devastated Moscow.[51] The borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions. From the beginning of the 16th century until the end of the 17th century, Crimean Tatar slave raiding bands[52] exported about two million slaves from Russia and Ukraine.[53] According to Orest Subtelny, "from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy."[54] In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians.[55] The Tatar raids took a heavy toll, discouraging settlement in more southerly regions where the soil was better and the growing season was longer. The last remnant of the Crimean Khanate was finally conquered by the Russian Empire in 1783.[56]
In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and by Ruthenian peasants who had fled Polish serfdom.[57] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be a useful opposing force to the Turks and Tatars,[58] and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.[59] However, the continued harsh enserfment of peasantry by Polish nobility and especially the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[58]
The Cossacks sought representation in the Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions, and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were rejected by the Polish nobility, who dominated the Sejm.[60]
Cossack Hetmanate
Russia's victory over Charles XII of Sweden and his ally Ivan Mazepa at the Battle of Poltava (1709) destroyed Cossack autonomy.
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Petro Doroshenko led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king.[61] After Khmelnytsky made an entry into Kyiv in 1648, where he was hailed liberator of the people from Polish captivity, he founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[citation needed]
Khmelnytsky, deserted by his Tatar allies, suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, and turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereyaslav Council, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian tsar.
In the period 1657–1686 came "The Ruin", a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, and Cossacks for control of Ukraine, which occurred at about the same time as the Deluge of Poland. The wars escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of deaths. The "Treaty of Perpetual Peace" between Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty.
In 1686, the Metropolitanate of Kyiv was annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate through the Synodal Letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV (later anathematized), who made a simony.
In 1709, Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709) defected to Sweden against Russia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). Eventually Tsar Peter recognized that to consolidate and modernize Russia's political and economic power it was necessary to do away with the Cossack Hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa died in exile after fleeing from the Battle of Poltava (1709), in which the Swedes and their Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat.
The first page of the Bendery Constitution. This copy in Latin was probably penned by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk. The original is kept in the National Archives of Sweden.
The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk or Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhian Host was a 1710 constitutional document written by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk, a Cossack of Ukraine, then within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[62] It established a standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws. The Constitution limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk was unique for its period, and was one of the first state constitutions in Europe.[citation needed]
The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporozhian Sich was abolished in 1775, as Russia centralised control over its lands. As part of the Partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795, the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided between Russia and Austria. From 1737 to 1834, expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the eastern Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy.[citation needed]
Kirill Razumovski, the last Hetman of left- and right-bank Ukraine 1750–1764 and the first person to declare Ukraine to be a sovereign state
Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial rulings from Kraków were routinely flouted, while peasants were heavily taxed and practically tied to the land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox lesser nobility. In 1596, they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate Church; it dominates western Ukraine to this day. Religious differentiation left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.[63]
Cossacks led an uprising, called Koliivshchyna, starting in the Ukrainian borderlands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1768. Ethnicity was one root cause of this revolt, which included the Massacre of Uman that killed tens of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare also broke out among Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the Dnieper in the time of Catherine the Great set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.[64]
After the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire in 1783, Novorossiya was settled by Ukrainians and Russians.[65] Despite promises in the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they had expected. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest Russian state and church offices.[a] In a later period, tsarists established a policy of Russification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print and in public.[66]
19th century, World War I and revolution
Main articles: Southwestern Krai, Kharkov Governorate, and Chernigov Governorate
Further information: Ukraine during World War I, Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, Ukrainian War of Independence, and Soviet–Ukrainian War
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the territory of today's Ukraine was included in the governorates of Chernihiv (Chernigov in Russian), Kharkiv (Kharkov), Kyiv 1708–1764, and Little Russia 1764–1781, Podillia (Podolie), and Volyn (Volhynia)—with all but the first two informally grouped into the Southwestern Krai.
After the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), Catherine the Great and her immediate successors encouraged German immigration into Ukraine and especially into Crimea, to thin the previously dominant Turk population and encourage agriculture.[67] Numerous Ukrainians, Russians, Germans, Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks moved into the northern Black Sea steppe formerly known as the "Wild Fields".[68][69]
With growing urbanization and modernization, and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and the political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.[70][71]
A map from 1904 showing administrative units of Little Russia, South Russia and West Russia within the Russian Empire prior to Ukrainian independence
Beginning in the 19th century, there was migration from Ukraine to distant areas of the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[72] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[73] Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as Green Ukraine.[74]
Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century. Austrian Galicia, under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the centre of the nationalist movement.[75]
Ukrainians entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. Three-and-a-half million Ukrainians fought with the Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army.[76] Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This became the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post-World War I period (1919–23). Those suspected of Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly.[77]
Polish troops enter Kyiv in May 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War in which Ukrainians sided with Poland against the Bolsheviks. Following the Peace of Riga signed on 18 March 1921, Poland took control of modern-day western Ukraine while Soviet forces took control of eastern Ukraine.
World War I destroyed both empires. The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the founding of the Soviet Union under the Bolsheviks, and subsequent civil war in Russia. A Ukrainian national movement for self-determination emerged, with heavy Communist and Socialist influence. Several Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the internationally recognized Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR, the predecessor of modern Ukraine, was declared on 23 June 1917 proclaimed at first as a part of the Russian Republic; after the Bolshevik Revolution, the Ukrainian People's Republic proclaimed its independence on 25 January 1918), the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the Ukrainian lands of former Austro-Hungarian territory.[78]
The short-lived Act Zluky (Unification Act) was an agreement signed on 22 January 1919 by the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian People's Republic on the St. Sophia Square in Kyiv.[79] This led to civil war, and an anarchist movement called the Black Army (later renamed to the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine) developed in Southern Ukraine under the command of the anarchist Nestor Makhno during the Russian Civil War.[80] They protected the operation of "free soviets" and libertarian communes in the Free Territory, an attempt to form a stateless anarchist society from 1918 to 1921 during the Ukrainian Revolution, fighting both the tsarist White Army under Denikin and later the Red Army under Trotsky, before being defeated by the latter in August 1921.
Poland defeated Western Ukraine in the Polish–Ukrainian War, but failed against the Bolsheviks in an offensive against Kyiv. According to the Peace of Riga, western Ukraine was incorporated into Poland, which in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919. With establishment of the Soviet power, Ukraine lost half of its territory, while Moldavian autonomy was established on the left bank of the Dniester River. Ukraine became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1922.[81]
Western Ukraine, Carpathian Ruthenia and Bukovina
See also: Rusyns and Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Hutsuls living in Verkhovyna, c. 1930
The war in Ukraine continued for another two years; by 1921, however, most of Ukraine had been taken over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia and Volhynia (mostly today's West Ukraine) were incorporated into the Second Polish Republic. Modern-day Bukovina was annexed by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to the Czechoslovak Republic as an autonomy.[82]
A powerful underground Ukrainian nationalist movement arose in eastern Poland in the 1920s and 1930s, which was formed by Ukrainian veterans of the Ukrainian-Soviet war (including Yevhen Konovalets, Andriy Melnyk, and Yuriy Tyutyunyk) and was transformed into the Ukrainian Military Organization and later the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The movement attracted a militant following among students. Hostilities between Polish state authorities and the popular movement led to a substantial number of fatalities, and the autonomy which had been promised was never implemented. The pre-war Polish government also exercised anti-Ukrainian sentiment; it restricted rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality, belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church and inhabited the Eastern Borderlands.[83][84] The Ukrainian language was restricted in every field possible, especially in governmental institutions, and the term "Ruthenian" was enforced in an attempt to ban the use of the term "Ukrainian".[85] Despite this, a number of Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic Church, an active press, and a business sector existed in Poland. Economic conditions improved in the 1920s, but the region suffered from the Great Depression in the early 1930s.[86]
Inter-war Soviet Ukraine
See also: Holodomor
The Dnieper Hydroelectric Station under construction, around 1930
The Russian Civil War devastated the whole Russian Empire including Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire territory. Soviet Ukraine also faced the Russian famine of 1921 (primarily affecting the Russian Volga-Ural region).[87][88] During the 1920s,[89] under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in the Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation).[81] The Bolsheviks were also committed to universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.[90] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws.[91] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early 1930s after Joseph Stalin became the de facto communist party leader.[citation needed]
Starting from the late 1920s with a centrally planned economy, Ukraine was involved in Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled during the 1930s.[81] The peasantry suffered from the programme of collectivisation of agriculture which began during and was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and secret police.[81] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and agricultural productivity greatly declined. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine".[92]
A starved man on the streets of Kharkiv, 1933. Collectivization of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine known as the Holodomor.
Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and the governments of other countries have acknowledged it as such.[b]
The Communist leadership perceived famine as a means of class struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants into collective farms.[93]
Largely the same groups were responsible for the mass killing operations during the civil war, collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups were associated with Yefim Yevdokimov (1891–1939) and operated in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Yevdokimov transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. He appears to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on Yevdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great Terror in 1937–38.[94]
On 13 January 2010, Kyiv Appellate Court posthumously found Stalin, Kaganovich and other Soviet Communist Party functionaries guilty of genocide against Ukrainians during the Holodomor famine.[95]
World War II
See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and The Holocaust in Ukraine
Territorial evolution of the Ukrainian SSR, 1922–1954
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.[96][97]
In 1940, the Soviets annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognized by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.[citation needed]
Marshal Timoshenko (born in the Budjak region) commanded numerous fronts throughout the war, including the Southwestern Front east of Kyiv in 1941.
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.[98][99]
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[100] in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). Created as armed forces of the underground (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, OUN)[101][102] which had developed in interwar Poland as a reactionary nationalist organization. During the interwar period, the Polish government's policies towards the Ukrainian minority were initially very accommodating; however, by the late 1930s they became increasingly harsh due to civil unrest. Both organizations, OUN and UPA supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. Beginning in mid-1943 and lasting until the end of the war, UPA carried out massacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia and Eastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians,[103] which brought reprisals.[104] The organized massacres were an attempt by OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of prewar Poland.[105] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[106][107] At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[citation needed]
Kyiv suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by the Germans from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943.
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[100] to 7 million.[108][c] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944, with about 50% being ethnic Ukrainians.[109] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[110][111]
Most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators. Brutal German rule eventually turned their supporters against the Nazi administrators, who made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[112] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[112] They blockaded the transport of food on the Kyiv River.[113]
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.[114] By some estimates, 93% of all German casualties took place there.[115] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[116][117] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[118] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[119][120][121] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[119][121][c][d] Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.[122] The losses of the Ukrainian people in the war amounted to 40-44% of the total losses of the USSR.[123]
Post–World War II
Further information: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), and History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[124] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure. The death toll of this famine varies, with even the lowest estimate in the tens of thousands.[117] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations organization,[125] part of a special agreement at the Yalta Conference.[126]
Post-war ethnic cleansing occurred in the newly expanded Soviet Union. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[127] In addition, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from Ukraine and more than 200,000 Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.[127]
Two future leaders of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev (pre-war CPSU chief in Ukraine) and Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from Kamianske), depicted together
Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Having served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938–49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic; after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize "the friendship" between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated. Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[128]
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[129] During the 1946–1950 five-year plan, nearly 20% of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a 5% increase from pre-war plans. As a result, the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2% from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period.[citation needed]
Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production,[130] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev. He later ousted Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982. Many prominent Soviet sports players, scientists, and artists came from Ukraine.[citation needed]
On 26 April 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[131] This was the only accident to receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear Event Scale, indicating a "major accident", until the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011.[132] At the time of the accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.[133]
After the accident, the new city of Slavutych was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization attributed 56 direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000 extra cancer deaths.[134]
Independence
See also: Modern history of Ukraine
Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin signed the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991.
On 21 January 1990, over 300,000 Ukrainians[135] organised a human chain for Ukrainian independence between Kyiv and Lviv, in memory of the 1919 unification of the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian National Republic. Citizens came out to the streets and highways, forming live chains by holding hands in support of unity.
On 16 July 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[136] This established the principles of the self-determination, democracy, independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation with the central Soviet authorities. On 2–17 October 1990, the Revolution on Granite took place in Ukraine, the main purpose of the action was to prevent the signing of a new union treaty of the USSR. The demands of the students were satisfied by signing a resolution of the Verkhovna Rada, which guaranteed their implementation.[137]
In August 1991, a faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After it failed, on 24 August 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence.[138]
A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on 1 December 1991. More than 90% of the electorate expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk as the first President of Ukraine. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on 8 December, followed by the Alma Ata meeting on 21 December, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[139] On 26 December 1991 the Council of Republics of the USSR Supreme Council adapted declaration "In regards to creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States" (Russian: В связи с созданием Содружества Независимых Государств) which de jure dissolved the Soviet Union and the Soviet flag was lowered over the Kremlin.[140] The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.[141]
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[142] However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[143][144] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[145] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as the amounts of crime and corruption in Ukraine, Ukrainians protested and organized strikes.[146]
The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. After 2000, the country enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.[147][148] A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticised by opponents for corruption, electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and concentrating too much power in his office.[149] Ukraine also pursued full nuclear disarmament, giving up the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world and dismantling or removing all strategic bombers on its territory in exchange for various assurances (main article: Nuclear weapons and Ukraine).[150]
Orange Revolution
Main article: Orange Revolution
Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange Revolution
In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[151] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome. During the tumultuous months of the revolution, candidate Yushchenko suddenly became gravely ill, and was soon found by multiple independent physician groups to have been poisoned by TCDD dioxin.[152][153] Yushchenko strongly suspected Russian involvement in his poisoning.[154] All of this eventually resulted in the peaceful Orange Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.[155]
Yulia Tymoshenko (right), Angela Merkel and Mikhail Saakashvili
Activists of the Orange Revolution were funded and trained in tactics of political organisation and nonviolent resistance by Western pollsters[clarification needed] and professional consultants[who?] who were partly funded by Western government and non-government agencies but received most of their funding from domestic sources.[nb 1][156] According to The Guardian, the foreign donors included the U.S. State Department and USAID along with the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, the International Republican Institute, the NGO Freedom House and George Soros's Open Society Institute.[157] The National Endowment for Democracy has supported democracy-building efforts in Ukraine since 1988.[158] Writings on nonviolent struggle by Gene Sharp contributed in forming the strategic basis of the student campaigns.[159]
Russian authorities provided support through advisers such as Gleb Pavlovsky, consulting on blackening the image of Yushchenko through the state media, pressuring state-dependent voters to vote for Yanukovych and on vote-rigging techniques such as multiple "carousel voting" and "dead souls" voting.[156]
Yanukovych returned to power in 2006 as Prime Minister in the Alliance of National Unity,[160] until snap elections in September 2007 made Tymoshenko Prime Minister again.[161] Amid the 2008–09 Ukrainian financial crisis the Ukrainian economy plunged by 15%.[162] Disputes with Russia briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in other countries.[163][164] Viktor Yanukovych was elected President in 2010 with 48% of votes.[165]
Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity
Main articles: Euromaidan and Revolution of Dignity
Further information: Timeline of the Euromaidan
Pro-EU demonstration in Kyiv, 27 November 2013, during the Euromaidan protests
The Euromaidan (Ukrainian: Євромайдан, literally "Eurosquare") protests started in November 2013 after the president, Viktor Yanukovych, began moving away from an association agreement that had been in the works with the European Union and instead chose to establish closer ties with the Russian Federation.[166][167][168] Some Ukrainians took to the streets to show their support for closer ties with Europe.[169] Meanwhile, in the predominantly Russian-speaking east, a large portion of the population opposed the Euromaidan protests, instead supporting the Yanukovych government.[170] Over time, Euromaidan came to describe a wave of demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine,[171] the scope of which evolved to include calls for the resignation of President Yanukovych and his government.[172]
Violence escalated after 16 January 2014 when the government accepted new Anti-Protest Laws. Violent anti-government demonstrators occupied buildings in the centre of Kyiv, including the Justice Ministry building, and riots left 98 dead with approximately fifteen thousand injured and 100 considered missing[173][174][175][176] from 18 to 20 February.[177][178] On 21 February, President Yanukovych signed a compromise deal with opposition leaders that promised constitutional changes to restore certain powers to Parliament and called for early elections to be held by December.[179] However, Members of Parliament voted on 22 February to remove the president and set an election for 25 May to select his replacement.[180] Petro Poroshenko, running on a pro-European Union platform, won with over fifty percent of the vote, therefore not requiring a run-off election.[181][182][183] Upon his election, Poroshenko announced that his immediate priorities would be to take action in the civil unrest in Eastern Ukraine and mend ties with the Russian Federation.[181][182][183] Poroshenko was inaugurated as president on 7 June 2014, as previously announced by his spokeswoman Irina Friz in a low-key ceremony without a celebration on Kyiv's Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square, the centre of the Euromaidan protests[184]) for the ceremony.[185][186] In October 2014 Parliament elections, Petro Poroshenko Bloc "Solidarity" won 132 of the 423 contested seats.
Civil unrest, Russian intervention, and annexation of Crimea
Main articles: 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, Russo-Ukrainian War, War in Donbas, and Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
The ousting[188] of Yanukovych prompted Vladimir Putin to begin preparations to annex Crimea on 23 February 2014.[189][190] Using the Russian naval base at Sevastopol as cover, Putin directed Russian troops and intelligence agents to disarm Ukrainian forces and take control of Crimea.[191][192][193][194] After the troops entered Crimea,[195] a controversial referendum was held on 16 March 2014 and the official result was that 97 percent wished to join with Russia.[196] On 18 March 2014, Russia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Crimea signed a treaty of accession of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol in the Russian Federation. The UN general assembly responded by passing resolution 68/262 that the referendum was invalid and supporting the territorial integrity of Ukraine.[197]
Separately, in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions, armed men declaring themselves as local militia supported with pro-Russian protesters[198] seized government buildings, police and special police stations in several cities and held unrecognised status referendums.[199] The insurgency was led by Russian emissaries Igor Girkin[200] and Alexander Borodai[201] as well as militants from Russia, such as Arseny Pavlov.[202]
Talks in Geneva between the EU, Russia, Ukraine, and the United States yielded a Joint Diplomatic Statement referred to as the 2014 Geneva Pact[203] in which the parties requested that all unlawful militias lay down their arms and vacate seized government buildings, and also establish a political dialogue that could lead to more autonomy for Ukraine's regions. When Petro Poroshenko won the presidential election held on 25 May 2014, he vowed to continue the military operations by the Ukrainian government forces to end the armed insurgency.[204] More than 9,000 people have been killed in the military campaign.[citation needed]
In August 2014, a bilateral commission of leading scholars from the United States and Russia issued the Boisto Agenda indicating a 24-step plan to resolve the crisis in Ukraine.[205] The Boisto Agenda was organized into five imperative categories for addressing the crisis requiring stabilization identified as: (1) Elements of an Enduring, Verifiable Ceasefire; (2) Economic Relations; (3) Social and Cultural Issues; (4) Crimea; and, (5) International Status of Ukraine.[205] In late 2014, Ukraine ratified the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, which Poroshenko described as Ukraine's "first but most decisive step" towards EU membership.[206] Poroshenko also set 2020 as the target for EU membership application.[207]
OSCE SMM monitoring the movement of heavy weaponry in eastern Ukraine, 4 March 2015
In February 2015, after a summit hosted in Belarus, Poroshenko negotiated a ceasefire with the separatist troops. This included conditions such as the withdrawal of heavy weaponry from the front line and decentralisation of rebel regions by the end of 2015. It also included conditions such as Ukrainian control of the border with Russia in 2015 and the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Ukrainian territory. The ceasefire began at midnight on 15 February 2015. Participants in this ceasefire also agreed to attend regular meetings to ensure that the agreement is respected.[208]
Secretary General of NATO Jens Stoltenberg and Petro Poroshenko, 10 July 2017
On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with European Union,[12] which aims to modernize and develop Ukraine's economy, governance and rule of law to EU standards and gradually increase integration with the EU Internal market.[209] Then, on 11 May 2017 the European Union approved visa-free travel for Ukrainian citizens: this took effect from 11 June entitling Ukrainians to travel to the Schengen area for tourism, family visits and business reasons, with the only document required being a valid biometric passport.[210]
Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce satisfied the Ukraine's Naftogaz's claims for compensation for gas supplies for transit that were not supplied by Russian Gazprom. According to the decision of the Stockholm Arbitration, Naftogaz has achieved compensation in the amount of 4.63 billion dollars for Gazprom's failure to supply the agreed volumes of gas for transit. According to the results of two arbitration proceedings in Stockholm, Gazprom has to pay $2.56 billion in favor of Naftogaz.[211]
Kerch Strait incident occurred on 25 November 2018 when the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) coast guard fired upon and captured three Ukrainian Navy vessels attempting to pass from the Black Sea into the Sea of Azov through the Kerch Strait on their way to the port of Mariupol.[212][213]
On 6 January 2019, in Fener, a delegation of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine with the participation of President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko received a Tomos on autocephaly. The Tomos was presented to the head of the OCU, Metropolitan Epiphanius, during a joint liturgy with the Ecumenical Patriarch.[214] The next day, Tomos was brought to Ukraine for a demonstration at St. Sophia Cathedral. On January 9, all members of the Synod of the Constantinople Orthodox Church signed the Tomos during the scheduled meeting of the Synod.
On 21 February 2019, the Constitution of Ukraine was amended, the norms on the strategic course of Ukraine for membership in the European Union and NATO are enshrined in the preamble of the Basic Law, three articles and transitional provisions.[215]
President of Georgia Salome Zurabishvili, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky and European Council President Charles Michel during the 2021 International Conference in Batumi. In 2014, the EU signed association agreements with all three countries.
The 2019 Ukrainian presidential election was held on 31 March and 21 April in a two-round system. There were a total of 39 candidates for the election on the ballot. The 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia and the occupation of parts of Donetsk Oblast and Luhansk Oblast prevented around 12% of eligible voters from participating in the election. As no candidate received an absolute majority of the vote, a second round was held between the top two candidates, Volodymyr Zelensky, who played the role of Ukraine's president in a popular television comedy and the incumbent president, Petro Poroshenko, on 21 April 2019. According to the Central Election Commission, Zelensky won the second round with 73.22% of the votes.[216][217][218] Snap elections to the Ukrainian parliament were held on 21 July 2019.[219] Originally scheduled to be held at the end of October, these elections were brought forward after newly inaugurated President Volodymyr Zelensky dissolved parliament on 21 May 2019, during his inauguration.[220] The election result was the one-party majority, a novelty in Ukraine, for President Zelensky's Servant of the People party with 254 seats.[221]
On 7 September 2019, 22 Ukrainian sailors, 2 SBU officers, and 11 Ukrainian Kremlin political prisoners, Oleh Sentsov, Volodymyr Balukh, Edem Bekirov, Pavlo Hryb, Mykola Karpyuk, Stanislav Klykh, Oleksandr Kolchenko, Yevhen and Artur Panovy, Oleksiy Syzonovych and Roman Sushchenko returned to Ukraine as a result of a reciprocal release operation.[222][223]
Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 (PS752) was a scheduled international passenger flight from Tehran to Kyiv operated by Ukraine International Airlines (UIA). On 8 January 2020, the Boeing 737-800 operating the route was shot down shortly after takeoff from Tehran Imam Khomeini International Airport by the Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC).[224][225][226] All 176 passengers and crew were killed.[227]
On 2 March 2020, the first case of COVID-19 infection was confirmed in Chernivtsi.[228] Subsequently, quarantine was imposed, borders were closed and a state of emergency was declared. The epidemic covered all regions of Ukraine. Every day, the Ministry of Health publishes new information about the spread of the pandemic. Due to quarantine restrictions in the country, the economic crisis intensified, the number of officially unemployed increased by 67%.
On 4 March 2020, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine accepted the resignation of the Honcharuk Government and began the formation of the Shmyhal Government
Geography
Main article: Geography of Ukraine
View of Carpathian National Park and Hoverla at 2,061 m (6,762 ft), the highest mountain in Ukraine
Ukraine is a large country in Eastern Europe, lying mostly in the East European Plain. It is the second-largest European country, after Russia. It covers an area of 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi) and with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[39] It lies between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E.
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper (Dnipro), Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is the Hora Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains on Crimea, in the extreme south along the coast.[230] However, Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper); to the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which runs the border with the Russian Federation. Near the Sea of Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers, and natural changes in altitude form sudden drops in elevation and give rise to waterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulphur, graphite, titanium, magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber and an abundance of arable land. Despite this, the country faces a number of major environmental issues such as inadequate supplies of potable water; air and water pollution and deforestation, as well as radiation contamination in the north-east from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Recycling toxic household waste is still in its infancy in Ukraine.[231]
Soil
Kinburn sandbar, Ochakiv Raion, Mykolaiv Oblast
From northwest to southeast the soils of Ukraine may be divided into three major aggregations:[232]
Agricultural works in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast
a zone of sandy podzolized soils
a central belt consisting of the extremely fertile Ukrainian black earth (chernozems)
a zone of chestnut and salinized soils
As much as two-thirds of the country's surface land consists of black earth, a resource that has made Ukraine one of the most fertile regions in the world and well known as a "breadbasket".[233] These soils may be divided into three broad groups:
in the north, a belt of deep chernozems, about 5 feet (1.5 metres) thick and rich in humus
south and east of the former, a zone of prairie, or ordinary, chernozems, which are equally rich in humus but only about 3 feet (0.91 metres) thick
the southernmost belt, which is even thinner and has still less humus
Interspersed in various uplands and along the northern and western perimeters of the deep chernozems are mixtures of gray forest soils and podzolized black-earth soils, which together occupy much of Ukraine's remaining area. All these soils are very fertile when sufficient water is available. However, their intensive cultivation, especially on steep slopes, has led to widespread soil erosion and gullying.
The smallest proportion of the soil cover consists of the chestnut soils of the southern and eastern regions. They become increasingly salinized to the south as they approach the Black Sea.[232]
Climate
Further information: Climate of Ukraine
Köppen climate classification of Ukraine
Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea which has a subtropical climate.[234] The climate is influenced by moderately warm, humid air coming from the Atlantic Ocean.[235] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[235] Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[235] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 1,200 millimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 400 millimetres (15.7 in).[235]
Biodiversity
Further information: Wildlife of Ukraine
Ukraine contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.[236] Ukraine is home to a diverse assemblage of animals, fungi, microorganisms and plants.[citation needed]
Animals
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See also: List of fish in Ukraine and List of fish of the Black Sea
speckled ground squirrel
The speckled ground squirrel is a native of the east Ukrainian steppes.
White storks danube
White storks are native to south-western and north-western Ukraine.
Ukraine falls into two main zoological areas. One of these areas, in the west of the country, is made up of the borderlands of Europe, where there are species typical of mixed forests, the other is located in eastern Ukraine, where steppe-dwelling species thrive. In the forested areas of the country it is not uncommon to find lynxes, wolves, wild boar and martens, as well as many other similar species; this is especially true of the Carpathian Mountains, where many predatory mammals make their home, as well as a contingent of brown bears. Around Ukraine's lakes and rivers beavers, otters and mink make their home, whilst in the waters carp, bream and catfish are the most commonly found species of fish. In the central and eastern parts of the country, rodents such as hamsters and gophers are found in large numbers.[citation needed]
Fungi
More than 6,600 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species) have been recorded from Ukraine,[237][238] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Ukraine, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[239] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Ukraine, and 2,217 such species have been tentatively identified.[240]
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Ukraine, Government of Ukraine, and Elections in Ukraine
Further information: 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and War in Donbas
Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semi-parliamentary semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Constitution of Ukraine
Main article: Constitution of Ukraine
In the modern era, Ukraine has become a more democratic country.[241][242][243][244] This photo shows voters in the 2007 parliamentary elections putting ballots in transparent ballot boxes.
With the proclamation of its independence on 24 August 1991, and adoption of a constitution on 28 June 1996, Ukraine became a semi-presidential republic. However, in 2004, deputies introduced changes to the Constitution, which tipped the balance of power in favour of a parliamentary system. From 2004 to 2010, the legitimacy of the 2004 Constitutional amendments had official sanction, both with the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and most major political parties.[245] Despite this, on 30 September 2010 the Constitutional Court ruled that the amendments were null and void, forcing a return to the terms of the 1996 Constitution and again making Ukraine's political system more presidential in character.
The ruling on the 2004 Constitutional amendments became a major topic of political discourse. Much of the concern was based on the fact that neither the Constitution of 1996 nor the Constitution of 2004 provided the ability to "undo the Constitution", as the decision of the Constitutional Court would have it, even though the 2004 constitution arguably has an exhaustive list of possible procedures for constitutional amendments (articles 154–159). In any case, the current Constitution could be modified by a vote in Parliament.[245][246][247][clarification needed]
On 21 February 2014 an agreement between President Viktor Yanukovych and opposition leaders saw the country return to the 2004 Constitution. The historic agreement, brokered by the European Union, followed the Euromaidan protests that began in late November 2013 and culminated in a week of violent clashes in which scores of protesters were killed. In addition to returning the country to the 2004 Constitution, the deal provided for the formation of a coalition government, the calling of early elections, and the release of former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko from prison.[248] A day after the agreement was reached the Ukrainian parliament dismissed Yanukovych and installed its speaker Oleksandr Turchynov as interim president[249] and Arseniy Yatsenyuk as the Prime Minister of Ukraine.[250]
President, parliament and government
Volodymyr Zelensky Official portrait.jpg Денис Шмигаль 2020 3 (cropped).jpg
Volodymyr Zelensky
President Denys Shmyhal
Prime Minister
The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.[251] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[252] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.[253] However, the President still retains the authority to nominate the Ministers of the Foreign Affairs and of Defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the Prosecutor General and the head of the Security Service.
Cabinet of Ministers building
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the President in accordance with the proposals of the Prime Minister.
Courts and law enforcement
Main articles: Judicial system of Ukraine and Law enforcement in Ukraine
Klovsky Palace, home to the Supreme Court of Ukraine
The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except in the instance of gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[254]
Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".[255] The criminal judicial system maintains an average conviction rate of over 99%,[256] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with[257] suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[258] On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[258] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[258] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.
Since 1 January 2010 it has been permissible to hold court proceedings in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[259][260] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.
Law enforcement agencies in Ukraine are organised under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[261] Bloodshed was only avoided when Lt. Gen. Sergei Popkov heeded his colleagues' calls to withdraw.
The Ministry of Internal Affairs is also responsible for the maintenance of the State Security Service; Ukraine's domestic intelligence agency, which has on occasion been accused of acting like a secret police force serving to protect the country's political elite from media criticism. On the other hand, however, it is widely accepted that members of the service provided vital information about government plans to the leaders of the Orange Revolution to prevent the collapse of the movement.
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership of Ukraine, Ukraine–European Union relations, and The World Bank in Ukraine
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union, which had asked for seats for all 15 of its union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.
Leaders of Belarus, Russia, Germany, France, and Ukraine at the Minsk II summit, 2015
In January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (green) with the EU (blue), established by the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, opening its path towards European integration.
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[262] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force on 1 March 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association. On 31 January 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and on 10 March 1992, it became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine–NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[262] This was removed from the government's foreign policy agenda upon election of Viktor Yanukovych to the presidency, in 2010.[262] But after February 2014's Yanukovych ouster and the (denied by Russia) following Russian military intervention in Ukraine Ukraine renewed its drive for NATO membership.[262] Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union. The Association Agreement with the EU was expected to be signed and put into effect by the end of 2011, but the process was suspended by 2012 because of the political developments of that time.[263] The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[264]
Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 by the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes. There are also some tensions with Poland[265] and Hungary.[266]
The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, formally integrates Ukraine into the European Single Market and the European Economic Area.[267][268] Ukraine receives further support and assistance for its EU-accession aspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of the Visegrád Group that consists of Central European EU members the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.[269]
On 19 May 2018, Poroshenko signed a decree, which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[270][271] As of February 2019, Ukraine has minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and has effectively completed its withdrawal. The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.[141]
On 28 July 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.[272]
On 17 May 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[273] As of 2021, Ukraine is preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s.[274]
Armed forces
Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine
Henadii Lachkov, commander of the Ukrainian contingent in Multi-National Force – Iraq, kisses his country's flag
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[275][276] In May 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became free of nuclear weapons.[275]
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.[277]
Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaydachniy (U130)
Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping operations. On Friday 3 January 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and will be part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.[278] Ukrainian troops are deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[279] A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance and training battalion deployed in Sierra Leone. In 2003–05, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of the Multinational force in Iraq under Polish command. The total Ukrainian armed forces deployment around the world is 562 servicemen.[280]
Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.[281]
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[11] The country has had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation, other CIS countries and a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.[277] Recently deposed President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for the accession.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of Ukraine and Ukrainian historical regions
Further information: Political status of Crimea and Sevastopol and Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Including Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea that were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine consists of 27 regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status—Kyiv, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 136[282] raions (districts) and city municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units.
Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance, infrastructure and others.
Volyn Oblast
VolynRivne Oblast
RivneZhytomyr Oblast
ZhytomyrKiev Oblast
KyivKhmelnytskyi Oblast
Khmeln-
ytskyTernopil Oblast
TernopilIvano-Frankivsk Oblast
Ivano-
FrankivskZakarpattia Oblast
ZakarpattiaChernivtsi Oblast
ChernivtsiVinnytsia Oblast
VinnytsiaCherkasy Oblast
CherkasyKirovohrad Oblast
KirovohradMykolaiv Oblast
MykolaivPoltava Oblast
PoltavaChernihiv Oblast
ChernihivSumy Oblast
SumyKharkiv Oblast
KharkivDnipropetrovsk Oblast
DnipropetrovskOdessa Oblast
OdessaKherson Oblast
KhersonZaporizhia Oblast
ZaporizhzhiaDonetsk Oblast
DonetskAutonomous Republic of Crimea
CrimeaLuhansk Oblast
LuhanskKyiv
SevastopolLviv Oblast
Lviv••
Oblasts
Cherkasy
Chernihiv
Chernivtsi
Dnipropetrovsk
Donetsk
Ivano-Frankivsk
Kharkiv
Kherson
Khmelnytskyi
Kyiv
Kirovohrad
Luhansk
Lviv
Mykolaiv
Odessa
Poltava
Rivne
Sumy
Ternopil
Vinnytsia
Volyn
Zakarpattia
Zaporizhzhia
Zhytomyr
Autonomous republic Cities with special status
Autonomous Republic of Crimea
City of Kyiv
City of Sevastopol
Economy
Main article: Economy of Ukraine
Kyiv, the financial centre of the country.
Ukraine has a lower-middle income economy, which is the 55th largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the 40th largest by PPP. It is one of the world's largest grain exporters,[15][16] and is sometimes called the "Breadbasket of Europe".[283] However, the country is one of the poorest in Europe and is also among the most severely corrupt in the continent.[13][14] According to the IMF, Ukraine's GDP per capita by PPP is $13,943.[284] In 2019, the average nominal salary in Ukraine reached ₴10,000 per month or around €300,[285] while in 2018, Ukraine's median wealth per adult was $40, one of the lowest in the world.[286] Approximately 1.1% of Ukrainians lived below the national poverty line in 2019,[287] and unemployment in the country was 4.5% in 2019,[288] while some 5–15% of the Ukrainian population is categorized as middle class.[289] As of September 2020, Ukraine's government debt is roughly 52% of its nominal GDP.[290]
Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft. Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The majority of Ukrainian exports are marketed to the European Union and CIS.[291] Since independence, Ukraine has maintained its own space agency, the State Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU). Ukraine became an active participant in scientific space exploration and remote sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has launched six self made satellites and 101 launch vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.[292][293][294]
Ukraine produces and processes its own natural gas and petroleum. However, the country imports most of its energy supplies, and 80% of Ukraine's natural gas supplies are imported, mainly from Russia.[295]
Corporations
A launch of the Zenit-3SL rocket from the Sea Launch platform Ocean Odyssey
Ukraine has a very large heavy-industry base and is one of the largest refiners of metallurgical products in Eastern Europe.[296] However, the country is also well known for its production of high-technological goods and transport products, such as Antonov aircraft and various private and commercial vehicles.[citation needed] The country's largest and most competitive firms are components of the PFTS index, traded on the PFTS Ukraine Stock Exchange.
Well-known Ukrainian brands include Naftogaz Ukrainy, AvtoZAZ, PrivatBank, Roshen, Yuzhmash, Nemiroff, Motor Sich, Khortytsia, Kyivstar and Aerosvit.[297]
Transport
Main articles: Transport in Ukraine and Ukrainian Railways
HRCS2 unit
HRCS2 multiple unit. Rail transport is heavily utilised in Ukraine.
Couchette
A typical Ukrainian couchette for long distance trains
In total, Ukrainian paved roads stretch for 164,732 kilometres (102,360 mi).[39] Major routes, marked with the letter 'M' for 'International' (Ukrainian: Міжнародний), extend nationwide and connect all major cities of Ukraine, and provide cross-border routes to the country's neighbours. There are only two true motorway standard highways in Ukraine; a 175-kilometre (109-mile) stretch of motorway from Kharkiv to Dnipro and a section of the M03 which extends 18 km (11 mi) from Kyiv to Boryspil, where the city's international airport is located.[citation needed]
Rail transport in Ukraine connects all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial centres with neighbouring countries. The heaviest concentration of railway track is the Donbas region of Ukraine. Although rail freight transport fell in the 1990s, Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail users.[298] The total amount of railroad track in Ukraine extends for 22,473 kilometres (13,964 mi), of which 9,250 kilometres (5,750 mi) was electrified in the 2000s.[39] The state has a monopoly on the provision of passenger rail transport, and all trains, other than those with cooperation of other foreign companies on international routes, are operated by its company 'Ukrzaliznytsia.
The Kharkiv–Dnipro motorway (M18)
Kyiv Boryspil is the county's largest international airport; it has three main passenger terminals and is the base for the country's flag carrier, Ukraine International Airlines. Other large airports in the country include those in Kharkiv, Lviv and Donetsk (now destroyed), whilst those in Dnipro and Odessa have plans for terminal upgrades in the near future. In addition to its flag carrier, Ukraine has a number of airlines including Windrose Airlines, Dniproavia, Azur Air Ukraine, and AtlasGlobal Ukraine. Antonov Airlines, a subsidiary of the Antonov Aerospace Design Bureau is the only operator of the world's largest fixed wing aircraft, the An-225.
International maritime travel is mainly provided through the Port of Odessa, from where ferries sail regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company presently operating these routes is Ukrferry.[299]
Power generation
Zaporizhzhia nuclear station, the largest nuclear power plant in Europe
Ukraine has been a net energy exporting country, for example in 2011, 3.3% of electricity produced were exported,[300] but also one of Europe's largest energy consumers.[301] As of 2011, 47.6% of total electricity generation was from nuclear power[300] The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is located in Ukraine. Until the 2010s, all of Ukraine's nuclear fuel was coming from Russia. In 2008 Westinghouse Electric Company won a five-year contract selling nuclear fuel to three Ukrainian reactors starting in 2011.[302] Following Euromaidan then President Viktor Yanukovych introduced a ban on Rosatom nuclear fuel shipments to Europe via Ukraine, which was in effect from 28 January until 6 March 2014.[303] By 2016, Russia's share was down to 55 percent, Westinghouse supplying nuclear fuel for six of Ukraine's VVER-1000 nuclear reactors.[304] After the Russian annexation of Crimea in April 2014, the National Nuclear Energy Generating Company of Ukraine Energoatom and Westinghouse extended the contract for fuel deliveries through 2020.[305]
Coal and gas-fired thermal power stations and hydroelectricity are the second- and third-largest kinds of power generation in the country.[citation needed]
Information Technology
Main article: Telecommunications in Ukraine
According to A.T. Kearney Global Services Location Index,[306] Ukraine ranks 24th among the best outsourcing locations, and is among the top 20 offshore services locations in EMEA, according to Gartner.[307] In the first six months of 2017, the volume of export of computer and information services reached $1.256 billion, which is an 18.3% increase compared to the same period in 2016.[308] The IT industry ranks third in the export structure of Ukraine after agro-industry and metallurgy.
Ukraine's IT sector employs close to 100,000 workers, including 50,000 software developers. This number is expected to surpass the 200,000 mark by 2020.[309][needs update] There are over 1,000 IT companies in Ukraine.[310] In 2017, 13 of them made it to the list of 100 best outsourcing service providers in the world.[311] More than 100 multinational tech companies have R&D labs in Ukraine.[309]
Ukraine ranks first worldwide in the number of C++ and Unity3D developers, and second in the number of JavaScript, Scala, and Magento engineers.[312] Seventy-eight percent of Ukrainian tech workers report having an intermediate or higher level of English proficiency.[313]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Ukraine
In 2007 Ukraine occupied 8th place in Europe by the number of tourists visiting, according to the World Tourism Organization rankings.[314] Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for skiing, hiking and fishing: the Black Sea coastline as a popular summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosystems; churches, castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks; various outdoor activity points. Kyiv, Lviv, Odessa and Kamyanets-Podilskyi are Ukraine's principal tourist centres each offering many historical landmarks as well as formidable hospitality infrastructure. Tourism used to be the mainstay of Crimea's economy but there has been a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.[315]
The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are the selection of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by the general public through an Internet-based vote.
Demographics
Population of Ukraine from 1950
Main articles: Demographics of Ukraine, Ukrainians, and Ukrainian diaspora
As of July 2021, Ukraine has an estimated population of 41.4 million, and is the eighth-most populous country in Europe. It is a heavily urbanized country, and its industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most densely populated—about 67% of its total population lives in urban areas.[316] Ukraine has a population density of 69.49 inhabitants per square kilometre (180 per square mile), and the overall life expectancy in the country at birth is 73 years (68 years for males and 77.8 years for females).[317]
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's population hit a peak of roughly 52 million in 1993. However, due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, mass emigration, poor living conditions, and low-quality health care,[318][319] the total population decreased by 6.6 million, or 12.8% from the same year to 2014.
Composition of Ukraine by ethnicity
Ukrainians
77.8%
Russians
17.3%
Romanians and Moldovans
0.8%
Belarusians
0.6%
Crimean Tatars
0.5%
Bulgarians
0.4%
Hungarians
0.3%
Poles
0.3%
Others
1.7%
Source: Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census
According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians make up roughly 78% of the population, while Russians are the largest minority, at some 17.3% of the population. Small minority populations include: Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).[3] It is also estimated that there are about 10–40,000 Koreans in Ukraine, who live mostly in the south of the country, belonging to the historical Koryo-saram group.[320][321][322]
Language
Main articles: Ukrainian language, Russian language in Ukraine, Languages of Ukraine, and Name of Ukraine
Percentage of native Russian speakers by subdivision according to the 2001 census (by oblast)[f]
According to the constitution, the state language of Ukraine is Ukrainian.[323] Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.[323] According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent of the population declared Ukrainian as their native language and 29.6 percent declared Russian.[324] Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.[323] Russian was the de facto dominant language of the Soviet Union but Ukrainian also held official status[325] and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR learning Ukrainian was mandatory.[323] Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitles any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area.[326] Russian was within weeks declared as a regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities.[327] Russian can now be used in these cities'/oblasts' administrative office work and documents.[328][329] On 23 February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not signed by acting President Turchynov or by President Poroshenko.[330][331][332] In February 2019, the law allowing for regional languages was found unconstitutional.[333]
Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine.[323] In western Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian and Russian are both equally used in cities, with Russian being more common in Kyiv,[f] while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily used in cities, and Ukrainian is used in rural areas. These details result in a significant difference across different survey results, as even a small restating of a question switches responses of a significant group of people.[f] Hungarian is spoken in the Zakarpattia Oblast.[334]
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.[335] Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the image and usage of Ukrainian language through a policy of Ukrainisation.[336][337] Today, most foreign films and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.[338] Ukraine's 2017 education law bars primary education in public schools in grade five and up in any language but Ukrainian.[339][340] The Unian reported that "A ban on the use of cultural products, namely movies, books, songs, etc., in the Russian language in the public has been introduced" in the Lviv Oblast in September 2018.[341]
According to the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However, the republic's constitution specifically recognises Russian as the language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage 'in all spheres of public life'. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language of 12 percent of population of Crimea)[342] is guaranteed a special state protection as well as the 'languages of other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming majority of the Crimean population (77 percent), with Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4 percent and Ukrainian speakers comprising just 10.1 percent.[343] But in everyday life the majority of Crimean Tatars and Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.[344]
Religion
The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[345] is one of the main Christian cathedrals in Ukraine
Ukraine has the world's second-largest Eastern Orthodox population, after Russia.[346][347] A 2021 survey conducted by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found that 82% of Ukrainians declared themselves to be religious, while 7% were atheists, and a further 11% found it difficult to answer the question.[348] The level of religiosity in Ukraine was reported to be the highest in Western Ukraine (91%), and the lowest in the Donbas (57%) and Eastern Ukraine (56%).[349]
In 2021, 82% of Ukrainians were Christians; out of which 72.7% declared themselves to be Orthodox, 8.8% Greek Rite Catholics, 2.3% Protestants and 0.9% Latin Rite Catholics. 2.3% other Christians. Judaism, Islam and Hinduism were the religions of 0.2% of the population each. According to the study by Kyiv International Institute of Sociology, roughly 58.3% of the Ukrainian Orthodox population were members of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and 25.4% were members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate.[350]
According to a 2018 survey by the Razumkov Centre, 9.4% of Ukrainians were Byzantine Rite Catholics and 0.8% were Latin Rite Catholics.[351] Protestants are a growing community in Ukraine, who made up 1.9% of the population in 2016,[351] but rose to 2.2% of the population in 2018.
Health
Main article: Health in Ukraine
The Ukrainian Red Cross Society was established in April 1918 in Kyiv as an independent humanitarian society of the Ukrainian People's Republic. Its immediate tasks were to help refugees and prisoners of war, care for handicapped people and orphaned children, fight famine and epidemics, support and organize sick quarters, hospitals and public canteens. At present, society involves more than 6.3 million supporters and activists. Its Visiting Nurses Service has 3,200 qualified nurses. The organization takes part in more than 40 humanitarian programmes all over Ukraine, which are mostly funded by public donation and corporate partnerships. By its own estimates, the Society annually provides services to more than 105,000 lonely, elderly people, about 23,000 people disabled during the Second World War and handicapped workers, more than 25,000 war veterans, and more than 8,000 adults handicapped since childhood. Assistance for orphaned and disabled children is also rendered.
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[352] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.
The municipal children's hospital in Kremenchuk, Poltava Oblast
All of the country's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the Ministry of Healthcare, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.[353]
Hospitals in Ukraine are organised along the same lines as most European nations, according to the regional administrative structure; as a result most towns have their own hospital (Міська Лікарня) and many also have district hospitals (Районна Лікарня). Larger and more specialised medical complexes tend only to be found in major cities, with some even more specialised units located only in the capital, Kyiv. However, all oblasts have their own network of general hospitals which are able to deal with almost all medical problems and are typically equipped with major trauma centres; such hospitals are called 'regional hospitals' (Обласна Лікарня).
Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death rate and low birth rate (the Ukrainian birth rate is 11 births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 16.3 deaths/1,000 population). A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as alcohol poisoning and smoking.[354] In 2008, the country's population was one of the fastest declining in the world at −5% growth.[355][356] The UN warned that Ukraine's population could fall by as much as 10 million by 2050 if trends did not improve.[357] In addition, obesity, systemic high blood pressure and the HIV endemic are all major challenges facing the Ukrainian healthcare system.
As of March 2009 the Ukrainian government is reforming the health care system, by the creation of a national network of family doctors and improvements in the medical emergency services.[358] In November 2009, former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko proposed introducing a public healthcare system based on health insurance in the spring of 2010.[359]
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment of Ulana Suprun as a head of the Ministry of Healthcare.[360] Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.[361] Funds must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state. Emergency Medicine Reform is also an important part of the healthcare reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free or low-price medicine.[362]
Education
Main articles: Education in Ukraine and List of universities in Ukraine
The University of Kyiv is one of Ukraine's most important educational institutions.
The Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans by Josef Hlávka, 1882, now Chernivtsi University
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[363] There is also a small number of accredited private secondary and higher education institutions.
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%.[39] Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.[364] In the 12th grade, students take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.
The first higher education institutions (HEIs) emerged in Ukraine during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The first Ukrainian higher education institution was the Ostrozka School, or Ostrozkiy Greek-Slavic-Latin Collegium, similar to Western European higher education institutions of the time. Established in 1576 in the town of Ostrog, the Collegium was the first higher education institution in the Eastern Slavic territories. The oldest university was the Kyiv Mohyla Academy, first established in 1632 and in 1694 officially recognised by the government of Imperial Russia as a higher education institution. Among the oldest is also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kyiv (1834), Odessa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in Kyiv (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 a number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.[365] Most HEIs established after 1990 are those owned by private organisations.
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.[366] The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries, as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.[367] Ukraine has more than 800 higher-education institutions and in 2010 the number of graduates reached 654,700 people.[368]
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population. Higher education is either state funded or private. Students that study at state expense receive a standard scholarship if their average marks at the end-of-term exams and differentiated test suffice; this rule may be different in some universities. For highest grades, the scholarship is increased by 25%. For most students the government subsidy is not sufficient to cover their basic living expenses. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. Also, it is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in accordance with the Bologna process. Historically, Specialist degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in the Soviet times.
The Law of Ukraine On Higher Education came into force on 6 September 2014. It was approved in Ukrainian Parliament on 1 July 2014. The main changes in the system of higher education:[369] a separate collegiate body to monitor the quality of education was established (Ukrainian: Національне агентство із забезпечення якості вищої освіти); each higher education institution has the right to implement its own educational and research programs; role of the student government was increased; higher education institution has the right to freely administer own revenues; five following types of higher education qualifications were established: Junior Bachelor, Bachelor, Master, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and Doctor of Science; load on lecturers and students was reduced; academic mobility for faculty and students etc.
Regional differences
See also: Demographics of Ukraine § Regional differences, Central Ukraine, Eastern Ukraine, Southern Ukraine, and Western Ukraine
Results of the 2012 parliamentary election with Yanukovych's Party of Regions in blue and Batkivshchyna in purple
Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western Ukraine and in Central Ukraine, while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR schools, learning Russian was mandatory; in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian and in the other minority languages.[323][370][371][372]
On the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism, opinion in Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.[371][373][374][375]
Similar historical cleavages also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv, identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as well as Kyiv, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions (a poll by the Research & Branding Group held March 2010 showed that the attitude of the citizens of Donetsk to the citizens of Lviv was 79% positive and that the attitude of the citizens of Lviv to the citizens of Donetsk was 88% positive).[376] However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[376][377] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the Donbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[378]
Architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by Ukrainians worldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus'. Since the Christianization of Kievan Rus' for several ages Ukrainian architecture was influenced by the Byzantine architecture. After the 12th century, the distinct architectural history continued in the principalities of Galicia-Volhynia. During the epoch of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, a new style unique to Ukraine was developed under the western influences of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the union with the Tsardom of Russia, many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area were built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the western Galicia was developed under Austro-Hungarian architectural influences. Ukrainian national motifs would finally be used during the period of the Soviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.
The great churches of the Rus', built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the Kyivan state was strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often featured scores of small domes, which led some art historians to take this as an indication of the appearance of pre-Christian pagan Slavic temples.
Traditional Ukrainian village architecture in Curitiba, Brazil, which has a large Ukrainian diaspora[404]
Several examples of these churches survive; however, during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, many were externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style (see below). Examples include the grand St. Sophia of Kyiv—the year 1017 is the earliest record of foundation laid, Church of the Saviour at Berestove—built from 1113 to 1125 and St. Cyril's Church, circa 12th-century. All can still be found in the Ukrainian capital. Several buildings were reconstructed during the late-19th century, including the Assumption Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynskyi, built in 1160 and reconstructed in 1896–1900, the Paraskevi church in Chernihiv, built in 1201 with reconstruction done in the late 1940s, and the Golden gates in Kyiv, built in 1037 and reconstructed in 1982. The latter's reconstruction was criticised by some art and architecture historians as a revivalist fantasy. Unfortunately little secular or vernacular architecture of Kievan Rus' has survived.
As Ukraine became increasingly integrated into the Russian Empire, Russian architects had the opportunity to realise their projects in the picturesque landscape that many Ukrainian cities and regions offered. St. Andrew's Church of Kyiv (1747–1754), built by Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is a notable example of Baroque architecture, and its location on top of the Kyivan mountain made it a recognisable monument of the city. An equally notable contribution of Rasetrelli was the Mariinskyi Palace, which was built to be a summer residence to Russian Empress Elizabeth. During the reign of the last Hetman of Ukraine, Kirill Razumovsky, many of the Cossack Hetmanate's towns such as Hlukhiv, Baturyn and Koselets had grandiose projects built by Andrey Kvasov. Russia eventually conquered the south of Ukraine and Crimea, and renamed them as New Russia. New cities such as Nikolayev, Odessa, Kherson and Sevastopol were founded. These would contain notable examples of Imperial Russian architecture.
An example of a Khrushchyovka in Kryvyi Rih. Such apartments were built throughout Ukraine during Soviet times and are found in every major city.
In 1934, the capital of Soviet Ukraine moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv. Previously, the city was seen as only a regional centre, hence received little attention. All of that was to change, at great price. The first examples of Stalinist architecture were already showing, and, in light of the official policy, a new city was to be built on top of the old one. This meant that much-admired examples such as the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery were destroyed. Even the St. Sophia Cathedral was under threat. Also, the Second World War contributed to the wreckage. After the war, a new project for the reconstruction of central Kyiv transformed Khreshchatyk avenue into a notable example of Stalinism in Architecture. However, by 1955, the new politics of architecture once again stopped the project from fully being realised.
The task for modern Ukrainian architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. An example of modern Ukrainian architecture is the reconstruction and renewal of the Maidan Nezalezhnosti in central Kyiv. Despite the limit set by narrow space within the plaza, the engineers were able to blend together the uneven landscape, and use underground space for a new shopping centre.
A major project, which may take up most of the 21st century, is the construction of the Kyiv City-Centre on the Rybalskyi Peninsula, which, when finished, will include a dense skyscraper park amid the picturesque landscape of the Dnieper.[405]
Music
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Main article: Music of Ukraine
Cossack Mamay playing a kobza
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modern jazz.
Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented 2nd intervals.
Mykola Lysenko is widely considered to be the father of Ukrainian classical music.
During the Baroque period, music was an important discipline for those that had received a higher education in Ukraine. It had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being accomplished players of the kobza, bandura or torban.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv, Ukraine in 1738 and students were taught to sing, play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv, or had been closely associated with this music school. See: Dmytro Bortniansky, Maksym Berezovsky and Artemiy Vedel.
Ukrainian classical music falls into three distinct categories defined by whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was born or at some time was a citizen of Ukraine, or an ethnic Ukrainian living outside of Ukraine within the Ukrainian diaspora. The music of these three groups differs considerably, as do the audiences for whom they cater.
Ukrainian dance hopak
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player Mariana Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and performers like Vopli Vidoplyasova, Dakh Daughters, Dakha Brakha, Ivan Dorn and Okean Elzy.
Modern musical culture of Ukraine is presented both with academic and entertainment music. Ukraine has five conservatories, 6 opera houses, five houses of Chamber Music, Philharmony in all regional centers.
Ukraine hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 and the Eurovision Song Contest 2017.
Cinema
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Main article: Cinema of Ukraine
Ukraine has had an influence on the history of the cinema. Ukrainian directors Alexander Dovzhenko, often cited as one of the most important early Soviet filmmakers, as well as being a pioneer of Soviet montage theory, Dovzhenko Film Studios, and Sergei Parajanov, Armenian film director and artist who made significant contributions to Ukrainian, Armenian and Georgian cinema. He invented his own cinematic style, Ukrainian poetic cinema, which was totally out of step with the guiding principles of socialist realism.
Kira Muratova
Other important directors including Kira Muratova, Sergei Loznitsa, Myroslav Slaboshpytskyi, Larisa Shepitko, Sergei Bondarchuk, Leonid Bykov, Yuri Ilyenko, Leonid Osyka, Ihor Podolchak with his Delirium and Maryna Vroda. Many Ukrainian actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Vera Kholodnaya, Bohdan Stupka, Milla Jovovich, Olga Kurylenko, Mila Kunis.
Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of European and Russian influence. Ukrainian producers are active in international co-productions and Ukrainian actors, directors and crew feature regularly in Russian (Soviet in past) films. Also successful films have been based on Ukrainian people, stories or events, including Battleship Potemkin, Man with a Movie Camera, Winter on Fire: Ukraine's Fight for Freedom, Everything Is Illuminated.
Ukrainian State Film Agency owns National Oleksandr Dovzhenko Film Centre, film copying laboratory and archive, takes part in hosting of the Odessa International Film Festival, and Molodist is the only one FIAPF accredited International Film Festival held in Ukraine; competition program is devoted to student, first short and first full feature films from all over the world. Held annually in October.
Media
Main article: Media of Ukraine
Ukrayinska Pravda[406] was founded by Georgiy Gongadze in April 2000 (the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum). Published mainly in Ukrainian with selected articles published in or translated to Russian and English, the newspaper has particular emphasis on the politics of Ukraine. Freedom of the press in Ukraine is considered to be among the freest of the post-Soviet states other than the Baltic states. Freedom House classifies the Internet in Ukraine as "free" and the press as "partly free". Press freedom has significantly improved since the Orange Revolution of 2004. However, in 2010 Freedom House perceived "negative trends in Ukraine".
Kyiv dominates the media sector in Ukraine: the Kyiv Post is Ukraine's leading English-language newspaper. National newspapers Den, Dzerkalo Tyzhnia, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus, and television and radio are largely based there, although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. The Ukrainian publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover. Sanoma publishes Ukrainian editions of such magazines as Esquire, Harpers Bazaar and National Geographic Magazine. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.
Ukrainians listen to radio programming, such as Radio Ukraine or Radio Liberty, largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day. Several television channels operate, and many websites are popular.
Sport
Main article: Sport in Ukraine
Ukrainian footballer Andriy Shevchenko celebrates a goal against Sweden at Euro 2012
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. Such policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[407] The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha ("premier league").
Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team, most notably Ballon d'Or winners Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin. This award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko. The national team made its debut in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions, Italy.
Vitali Klitschko and his brother, Wladimir
Ukrainian boxers are amongst the best in the world.[408] The brothers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko are former heavyweight world champions who held multiple world titles throughout their careers. Also hailing from Ukraine, Vasyl Lomachenko, a 2008 and 2012 Olympic gold medalist. He is the unified lightweight world champion who ties the record for winning a world title in the fewest professional fights; three. As of September 2018, he is ranked as the world's best active boxer, pound for pound, by ESPN,[409]
Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.[410][411]
Basketball is becoming popular in Ukraine. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to organize EuroBasket 2015. Two years later the Ukraine national basketball team finished 6th in EuroBasket 2013 and qualified to FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history. Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional basketball club in Ukraine.
Chess is a popular sport in Ukraine. Ruslan Ponomariov is the former world champion. There are about 85 Grandmasters and 198 International Masters in Ukraine.
Rugby league is played throughout Ukraine.[412]
Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994 Winter Olympics. So far, Ukraine at the Olympics has been much more successful in Summer Olympics (115 medals in five appearances) than in the Winter Olympics. Ukraine is ranked 35th by number of gold medals won in the All-time Olympic Games medal count, with every country above it, except for Russia, having more appearances.[citation needed]
AudiAudi
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Not to be confused with Aldi.
For the song by American rapper Smokepurpp, see Audi (song).
Audi AG
Audi-Logo 2016.svg
Audi Ingolstadt.jpg
Headquarters in Ingolstadt
Type Subsidiary
Industry Automotive
Predecessors
Auto Union/DKW GmbH
Slaby-Beringer
Wanderer
NSU Motorenwerke AG
Founded
16 July 1909 in
Zwickau (Audi)
29 June 1932 in Chemnitz (Auto Union)
3 September 1949 in Ingolstadt (re-establishment)
10 March 1969 in Neckarsulm (Fusion)[1]
Founder August Horch[2]
Headquarters Ingolstadt, Germany
Number of locations 13 production facilities in 10 countries[3]
Area served Worldwide
Key people Markus Duesmann
(Chairman of the Board of Management & Board of Management Member for Technical Development and Product Lines)
Products Luxury vehicles
Production output Decrease 1,802,073 units[4]
Revenue Decrease €55.680 billion (2019)[5]
Operating income Increase €4.509 billion (2019)[5]
Net income Increase €3.943 billion (2019)[5]
Total assets Increase €66.878 billion (2019)[5]
Total equity Decrease €28.395 billion (2019)[5]
Number of employees 90,783 (12/2019)[6]
Parent Volkswagen Group
Divisions
Audi Germany
Audi Brussels
Audi Mexico
Audi Hungaria
Audi China
Audi do Brasil
Audi India
Audi Slovakia
Audi Spain
Audi Russia[7]
Subsidiaries
Audi Sport GmbH
Ducati
Italdesign Giugiaro
Lamborghini[7]
Website www.audi.com
Footnotes / references
Audi History: Chronicle,[8] 2011 Annual Financial Report[9]
Audi AG (German: [ˈaʊ̯di ʔaːˈɡeː] (audio speaker iconlisten)) (commonly referred to as Audi) is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. As a subsidiary of its parent company, the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide.
Main article: ElectrofuelElectrofue
l
Results
Year Manufacturer Chassis SEB
United States SPA
Belgium LMS
France SIL
United Kingdom SÃO
Brazil BHR
Bahrain FUJ
Japan SHA
China Total
points Pos.
2012 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 173 (209) 1st
Year Manufacturer Chassis SIL
United Kingdom SPA
Belgium LMS
France SÃO
Brazil COA
United States FUJ
Japan SHA
China BHR
Bahrain Total
points Pos.
2013 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 207 (207) 1st
Year Manufacturer Chassis Car SIL
United Kingdom SPA
Belgium LMS
France COA
United States FUJ
Japan SHA
China BHR
Bahrain SÃU
Brazil Total
points Pos.
2014 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 Ret 2 1 1 5 4 4 3 244 2nd
2 Ret 5 2 2 6 5 5 5
Formula E
Audi provide factory support to Abt Sportsline in the FIA Formula E Championship, The team competed under the title of Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team in the inaugural 2014-15 Formula E season.[101] On 13 February 2014 the team announced its driver line up as Daniel Abt and World Endurance Championship driver Lucas di Grassi.[102]
Year Team Chassis Driver BEI
China PUT
Malaysia PDE
Uruguay BUE
Argentina MIA
United States LBH
United States MCO
Monaco BER
Germany MSC
Russia LON
United Kingdom Total
points Pos.
2014–15 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-Renault SRT 01E Germany Daniel Abt 10 10 15 13† 3 15 Ret 14 5 Ret 11 165 3rd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 1 2 3 Ret 9 3 2 DSQ 2 4 6
Year Team Chassis Driver BEI
China PUT
Malaysia PDE
Uruguay BUE
Argentina MEX
Mexico LBH
United States PAR
France BER
Germany LON
United Kingdom Total
points Pos.
2015–16 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-ABT Schaeffler FE01 Germany Daniel Abt 11 7 8 13 7 3 10 2 Ret 2 221 2nd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 2 1 2 3 DSQ 1 1 3 4 Ret
Year Team Chassis Driver HKG
Hong Kong MAR
Morocco BUE
Argentina MEX
Mexico MCO
Monaco PAR
France BER
Germany NYC
United States MTL
Canada Total
points Pos.
2016–17 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-ABT Schaeffler FE02 Germany Daniel Abt Ret 6 7 7 7 13† 6 4 14† Ret 4 6 248 2nd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 2 5 3 1 2 Ret 2 3 4 5 1 7
Year Team Chassis Driver HKG
Hong Kong MAR
Morocco SAN
Chile MEX
Mexico PDE
Uruguay ROM
Italy PAR
France BER
Germany ZRH
Switzerland NYC
United States Total
points Pos.
2017–18 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-Audi e-tron FE04 Germany Daniel Abt 6 DSQ 10 Ret 1 14 4 7 1 13 2 3 264 1st
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 17 14 Ret Ret 9 2 2 2 2 1 1 2
Formula One
Audi has been linked to Formula One in recent years but has always resisted due to the company's opinion that it is not relevant to road cars, but hybrid power unit technology has been adopted into the sport, swaying the company's view and encouraging research into the program by former Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali.
Marketing
Branding
The logo used by Audi, 1985–2009
See also
DKW
Horch
Wanderer (company)
Notes
"The history of AUDI AG".
"History of Audi AG". Archived from the original on 14 January 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
AUDI, production plant. "Company Sites".
"Annual Financial Report 2019" (PDF). Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
"Annual Financial Report 2019".
"Key figures worldwide".
"Company AUDI AG".
"Chronicle 1899–1914". audiusa.com. Audi of America, LLC. 2012. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
"Audi 2011 Annual Financial Report" (PDF). AUDI AG. 17 February 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
"List of Shareholdings in accordance with sections 285 and 313 of the HGB of Volkswagen AG and the Volkswagen Group as of 31 December 2009" (PDF). volkswagenag.com. Volkswagen AG. 31 December 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
"Audi Launches New Brand Campaign". AudiWorld. 7 May 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
"Mercedes to take top spot as best-selling luxury car brand". Car Keys. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
Nazario, Uriah (18 May 2012). "The History of Audi Auto Group". GearHeads. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Audi AG motion picture 1994: "The Silver Arrows from Zwickau", running time approx. 49 mins.
Audi History Archived 9 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine audiusa.com
August Horch: "Ich baute Autos – Vom Schmiedelehrling zum Autoindustriellen", Schützen-Verlag Berlin 1937
A History of Progress – Chronicle of the Audi AG. Audi AG, Public Relations. 1996. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8376-0384-1.
"Brand family tree". audiusa com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Baldwin, Nick; Laban, Brian (1987). The World guide to automobile manufacturers. Facts on File Publications. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8160-1844-4.
History, Audi (2010). The Audi Story. Audi AG. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010.
Audi chronicle 1915–1929. audi.com
Audi chronicle 1930–1944. Audi.com
"Audi Worldwide: Home". Audi.com. 15 April 2009. Archived from the original on 4 February 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2009.
Oswald, p 263
Bulmer (Ed), Charles (24 July 1971). "The Audi-NSU Affair". Motor: 21.
Turner, Philip (24 July 1971). "Turner's Travel [to Wolfsburg]". Motor: 28–30.
"Quattro, The early years". Retrieved 2 November 2006.
Cremer, Andreas; Lavell, Tom (4 February 2010). "Audi 1980s Scare May Mean Lost Generation for Toyota". Business Week. Archived from the original on 8 February 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Holusha, John (24 July 1988). "A Hard Sell for Audi". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
Niedermeyer, Paul (7 March 2010). "The Audi 5000 Intended Unintended acceleration Debacle". The Truth About Cars. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Huber, Peter (January 1990). "Manufacturing the Audi Scare". Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Gossett, Sherrie (13 May 2005). "The CBS 'Cold Case' Files". Accuracy in Media. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Yates, Brock (16 April 1989). "Unfair at Any Speed". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2010 – via Highbeam.
"Pedal Application Errors" (PDF). March 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
"Study of Mechanical and Driver-Related Systems of the Audi 5000 Capable of Producing Uncontrolled Sudden Acceleration Incidents" (PDF). September 1988. Retrieved 3 December 2013.
"Audi Increases Warranty Plan". The New York Times. 27 July 1988. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
Reed, John (20 October 2010). "China: Audi sells a million". beyondbrics. Financial Times. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
Canada. "Audi's A game". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
"Audi has best May U.S. sales in its history!". Larson Automotive Group. 3 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
"Audi posts 10% growth in sales". 1 June 2012.
"Audi Worldwide > Company > Production plants > Aurangabad". Audi.com. 27 August 2010. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
"AUDI AG opens automobile plant in Mexico" (Press release). Audi AG. 30 September 2016. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
"Audi's Phone Box Updated With Qi Wireless Charging". Business Wire. 9 January 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2016 – via Berkshire Hathaway.
Dackevych, Alex (14 May 2014). "Audi 'lied' about safety testing of vehicles". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
"Germany investigates VW's ex-boss over fraud allegations". Reuters. 28 September 2015. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
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"Report: Germany Investigating Audi over Emissions". Newsweek. Reuters. 29 September 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
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Clarke, R.M., ed. (1986). On Audi & Auto Union 1952-1980. Road & Track Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 0948207876.
——————, ed. (1986). On Audi & Auto Union 1980-1986. Road & Track Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 0948207884.
Oswald, Werner (2001). Deutsche Autos [German Cars] (in German). Band [Volume] 2: 1920–1945. Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. ISBN 3613021706.
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Taras ShevchenkoTaras Hryhorovych Shevchenko (Ukrainian: Тара́с Григо́рович Шевче́нко [tɐˈrɑz ɦrɪˈɦɔrowɪtʃ ʃeu̯ˈtʃɛnko]; 9 March [O.S. 25 February] 1814 – 10 March [O.S. 26 February] 1861), also known as Kobzar Taras, or simply Kobzar (kobzars are bards in Ukrainian culture), was a Ukrainian poet, writer, artist, public and political figure, as well as folklorist and ethnographer.[4][5][6] His literary heritage is regarded to be the foundation of modern Ukrainian literature and, to a large extent, the modern Ukrainian language, though the language of his poems was different from the modern Ukrainian language. Shevchenko is also known for many masterpieces as a painter and an illustrator.[5]
He was a fellow of the Imperial Academy of Arts. Though he had never been the member of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, in 1847 Shevchenko was politically convicted for explicitly promoting the independence of Ukraine, writing poems in the Ukrainian language, and ridiculing members of the Russian Imperial House. Contrary to the members of the society who did not understand that their activity led to the idea of the independent Ukraine, according to the secret police, he was the champion of independence.
hildhood and youth
Parent's hut in Kyrylivka (now village of Shevchenkove, Zvenigorodsky region, Ukraine). Taras Shevchenko, pencil, 09/1843
Illustration from Meni trynadtsyatyy mynalo [uk] by Ivan Yizhakevych
Taras Shevchenko was born on 9 March [O.S. 25 February] 1814[Note b] in the village of Moryntsi, Zvenyhorodka county, Kyiv Governorate, Russian Empire (today Zvenyhorodka Raion, Ukraine). He was the third child after his sister Kateryna[9] and brother Mykyta,[9] in family of serf peasants Hryhoriy Ivanovych Shevchenko (1782?–1825) and Kateryna Yakymivna Shevchenko (Boiko) (1782? – 6 August 1823), both of whom were owned by landlord Vasily Engelhardt. According to the family legends, Taras's forefathers were Cossacks who served in the Zaporozhian Host and had taken part in the Cossack uprisings of the 17th and 18th centuries. Those uprisings were brutally suppressed in Cherkasy, Poltava, Kyiv, Bratslav, and Chernihiv disrupting normal social life for many years afterwards. Most of the local population were then enslaved and reduced to poverty.
In 1816 Shevchenko family moved back to the village of Kyrylivka (today Shevchenkove) in Zvenyhorodka county, where Taras' father, Hryhoriy Ivanovych, had been born.[10] Taras spent his childhood years in the village. On May 24 [O.S. May 12] 1816, Taras' sister Yaryna was born,[11] and on 7 February [O.S. 26 January] 1819—Maria.[12] Once, young Taras went looking for "the iron pillars that hold up the sky" and got lost. Chumaks who met the boy took him with him to Kyrylivka.[Note c][13][14] On 20 March [O.S. 8 March] 1821 Taras' brother Yosyp was born.[15]
In the fall of 1822 Taras started to take some grammar classes at a local precentor (dyak) Sovhyr.[16][17] At that time Shevchenko became familiar with Hryhoriy Skovoroda's works. During 1822-1828 Shevchenko painted horses and soldiers.[18]
On 10 February [O.S. 29 January] 1823 his older sister and nanny Kateryna married Anton Krasytskyi, a serf "from Zelena Dibrova". On 1 September [O.S. 20 August] 1823 Taras' hard working mother died.[19][20][21] A month later on 19 October [O.S. 7 October] 1823 his father married a widow Oksana Tereshchenko, a native of Moryntsi village, who already had three children of her own.[Note d][19][22] She treated her step children and, particularly, little Taras, with great cruelty.[Note e]
On July 4 [O.S. June 22] 1824 Taras's half-sister Maria from the second marriage of Hryhoriy Ivanovych was born.[23] In 1824 Taras, along with his father, became a traveling merchant (chumak) and traveled to Zvenyhorodka, Uman, Yelizavetgrad (today Kropyvnytskyi).[24] At the age of eleven Taras became an orphan when, on 2 April [O.S. 21 March] 1825, his father died as a serf in corvée.[21][25][26][27] Soon his stepmother along with her children returned to Moryntsi.
Taras went to work for precentor (dyak) Bohorsky who had just arrived from Kyiv in 1824.[28][29] As an apprentice, Taras carried water, heated up a school, served the precentor, read psalms over the dead and continued to study.[16][30] At that time Shevchenko became familiar with some works of Ukrainian literature. Soon, tired of Bohorsky's long term mistreatment, Shevchenko escaped in search of a painting master in the surrounding villages.[30] For several days he worked for deacon Yefrem in Lysianka,[30][31] later in other places around in southern part of Kyiv Governorate (villages Stebliv and Tarasivka).[31][32][33] In 1827 Shevchenko was herding community sheep near his village. He then met Oksana Kovalenko, a childhood friend, whom Shevchenko mentions in his works on multiple occasions. He dedicated the introduction of his poem "Mariana, the Nun" to her.[34][35]
As a hireling for the Kyrylivka priest Hryhoriy Koshytsia, Taras was visiting Bohuslav where he drove the priest's son to school, while also taking apples and plums to market. At the same time he was driving to markets in the towns of Burty and Shpola.[36] In 1828 Shevchenko was hired as a serving boy to a lord's court in Vilshana for permission to study with a local artist.[31] When Taras turned 14, Vasily Engelhardt died and the village of Kyrylivka and all its people became a property of his son, Pavlo Engelhardt.[37] Shevchenko was turned into a court servant of his new master at the Vilshana estates. On 18 December [O.S. 6 December] 1829 Pavlo Engelgardt caught Shevchenko at night painting a portrait of Cossack Matvii Platov, a hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. He boxed the ears of the boy and ordered him being whipped in the stables with rods.[38][39] During 1829–1833 Taras copied paintings of Suzdal masters.[40]
Taras Shevchenko. Portrait of Pavlo Engelgardt. 1833
For almost two and a half years, from fall of 1828 to start of 1831, Shevchenko stayed with his master in Vilno (Vilnius).[31][41] Details of the travel are not well known. Perhaps, there he attended lectures by painting professor Jan Rustem at the University of Vilnius. In the same city Shevchenko could also have witnessed the November Uprising of 1830. From those times Shevchenko's painting "Bust of a Woman"[42] survived. It indicates almost professional handling of the pencil.
After moving from Vilno to Saint Petersburg in 1831, Engelgardt took Shevchenko along with him.[43][44][45] To benefit from the art works (since it was prestigious to have one's own "chamber artist"), Engelgardt sent Shevchenko to painter Vasiliy Shiriayev for four-year study. From that point and until 1838 Shevchenko lived in the Khrestovskyi building (today Zahorodnii prospekt, 8) where Shiriayev rented an apartment.[39][46] In his free time at night, Shevchenko visited the Summer Garden where he portrayed statues. In Saint Petersburg he also started writing his poems.[39][47][48]
In 1833 Shevchenko painted a portrait of his master Pavlo Engelgardt (National museum of Taras Shechenko).[49]
In his novel "Artist" Shevchenko described that during the pre-academical period he painted such works as "Apollo Belvedere", "Fraklete", "Heraclitus", "Architectural barelief", "Mask of Fortune".[48][50] He participated in painting of the Big Theatre as artist apprentice.[51] He created a composition "Alexander of Macedon shows trust towards his doctor Philip". The drawing was created for a contest of the Imperial Academy of Arts, announced in 1830.
Shevchenko was accepted as a student into the Academy of Arts in the workshop of Karl Briullov in the same year. The following year he became a resident student at the Association for the Encouragement of Artists. During annual examinations at the Imperial Academy of Arts, Shevchenko won the silver medal for landscape painting. In 1840 he again received the silver medal, this time for his first oil painting, The Beggar Boy Giving Bread to a Dog.[55]
Shevchenko began writing poetry while still being a serf, and in 1840 his first collection of poetry, Kobzar,[56] was published. According to Ivan Franko, a renowned Ukrainian poet in the generation after Shevchenko, "[Kobzar] was "a new world of poetry. It burst forth like a spring of clear, cold water, and sparkled with a clarity, breadth and elegance of artistic expression not previously known in Ukrainian writing".
In 1841, the epic poem Haidamaky was released.[56] In September 1841, Shevchenko was awarded his third silver medal for The Gypsy Fortune Teller. Shevchenko also wrote plays. In 1842, he released a part of the tragedy Mykyta Haidai and in 1843 he completed the drama Nazar Stodolia.
While residing in Saint Petersburg, Shevchenko made three trips to Ukraine, in 1843, 1845, and 1846. The difficult conditions Ukrainians had made a profound impact on the poet-painter. Shevchenko visited his siblings, still enserfed, and other relatives. He met with prominent Ukrainian writers and intellectuals Yevhen Hrebinka, Panteleimon Kulish, and Mykhaylo Maksymovych, and was befriended by the princely Repnin family, especially Varvara.
In 1844, distressed by the condition of Ukrainian regions in the Russian Empire, Shevchenko decided to capture some of his homeland's historical ruins and cultural monuments in an album of etchings, which he called Picturesque Ukraine. Only the first six etchings were printed because of the lack of means to continue.[56] An album of watercolors from historical places and pencil drawings was done in 1845.
Exile
On 22 March 1845, the Council of the Academy of Arts granted Shevchenko the title of a non-classed artist. He again travelled to Ukraine where he met with historian Nikolay Kostomarov and other members of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, a clandestine society also known as Ukrainian-Slavic society[7] and dedicated to the political liberalization of the Empire and its transformation into a federation-like polity of Slavic nations.[7] Upon the society's suppression by the authorities, Shevchenko's wrote a poem "Dream", that was confiscated from the society's members and became one of the major issues of the scandal.[57]
Shevchenko was arrested together with the members of the society on 5 April 1847.[58] Tsar Nicholas I read Shevchenko's poem, "Dream". Vissarion Belinsky wrote in his memoirs that, Nicholas I, knowing Ukrainian very well, laughed and chuckled whilst reading the section about himself, but his mood quickly turned to bitter hatred when he read about his wife. Shevchenko had mocked her frumpy appearance and facial tics, which she had developed fearing the Decembrist Uprising and its plans to kill her family. After reading this section the Tsar indignantly stated "I suppose he had reasons not to be on terms with me, but what has she done to deserve this?"[59][60] In the official report of Orlov Shevchenko was accused in using "Little-Russian language"[7] (archaic Russian name for Ukrainian language) of outrageous content instead of being grateful to be redeemed out of serfdom.[7] In the report Orlov claimed that Shevchenko was expressing a cry over alleged enslavement and disaster of Ukraine, glorified the Hetman Administration (Cossack Hetmanate) and Cossack liberties and "with incredible audacity poured slander and bile on persons of Imperial House".[7]
While under investigation, Shevchenko was imprisoned in Saint Petersburg in casemates of the 3rd Department of Imperial Chancellery on Panteleimonovskaya Street (today Pestelia str., 9). After being convicted, he was exiled as a private to the Russian military garrison in Orenburg[7] at Orsk, near the Ural Mountains. Tsar Nicholas I, personally confirmed his sentence,[61] added to it, "Under the strictest surveillance, without the right to write[7] or paint." He was subsequently sent on a forced march from Saint Petersburg to Orenburg and Orsk.
Dalismen-mule-village, 1851
Next year in 1848, he was assigned to undertake the first Russian naval expedition of the Aral Sea on the ship "Konstantin", under the command of Lieutenant Butakov. Although officially a common private, Shevchenko was effectively treated as an equal by the other members of the expedition. He was tasked to sketch various landscapes around the coast of the Aral Sea. After an 18-month voyage (1848–49) Shevchenko returned with his album of drawings and paintings to Orenburg. Most of those drawings were created for a detailed account about the expedition. Nevertheless, Shevchenko created many unique works of art about the Aral Sea nature and Kazakhstan people at a time when Russian conquest of Central Asia had begun in the middle of the nineteenth century.[62]
He was then sent to one of the worst penal settlements, the remote fortress of Novopetrovsk at Mangyshlak Peninsula, where he spent seven terrible years. In 1851, at the suggestion of fellow serviceman Bronisław Zaleski, lieutenant colonel Mayevsky assigned him to the Mangyshlak (Karatau) geological expedition. In 1857 Shevchenko finally returned from exile after receiving amnesty from a new emperor, though he was not permitted to return to St. Petersburg and was forced to stay in Nizhniy Novgorod.
In May 1859, Shevchenko got permission to return to Ukraine. He intended to buy a plot of land close to the village Pekari. In July, he was again arrested on a charge of blasphemy, but then released and ordered to return to St. Petersburg.[63]
Grave of Taras Shevchenko, Taras Hill near Kaniv, historical postcard. The cross was dismantled by the Soviets in the 1920s.[64]
Death
Taras Shevchenko spent the last years of his life working on new poetry, paintings, and engravings, as well as editing his older works. After difficult years in exile, however, his illnesses took their toll upon him. Shevchenko died in Saint Petersburg on 10 March 1861.
He was first buried at the Smolensk Cemetery in Saint Petersburg. However, fulfilling Shevchenko's wish, expressed in his poem "Testament" ("Zapovit"), to be buried in Ukraine, his friends arranged the transfer of his remains by train to Moscow and then by horse-drawn wagon to his homeland. Shevchenko was re-buried on 8 May on the Chernecha hora (Monk's Hill; today Taras Hill) near the Dnipro River and Kaniv.[25] A tall mound was erected over his grave, now a memorial part of the Kaniv Museum-Preserve.
Dogged by terrible misfortune in love and life, the poet died seven days before the 1861 emancipation of serfs was announced. His works and life are revered by Ukrainians throughout the world and his impact on Ukrainian literature is immense.
Granite VenturesGranite's notable investment portfolio includes Airspace Systems, Anaplan, Lucidworks, Marqeta, Mojo Networks, and Smule. Granite Ventures
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Granite Ventures
Granite Ventures logo
Type Private
Industry Private equity
Founded 1992; 30 years ago
Headquarters San Francisco, California, United States
Products Venture capital
Total assets US$1,000,000,000
Number of employees 20+
Website granitevc.com Edit this at Wikidata
Granite Ventures is a venture capital firm with offices in San Francisco, California. Granite's predecessor H&Q Venture Associates, founded in 1992, was the venture capital investment arm of Hambrecht & Quist, a leading technology oriented investment bank. Granite completed a spinout from H&Q when the bank was sold to Chase Manhattan Bank in 1999.[1]
Since its founding, Granite has raised over $1 billion in investor commitments and has invested in more than 90 companies. In 2005, the firm raised Granite Ventures II, its second fund since completing its spinout in 2000, with $350 million of investor commitments.[2]
Granite's investment professionals include: Chris Hollenbeck, Chris McKay, Standish O'Grady and Eric Zimits.
Investments
Granite has backed such companies as Anaplan, Tumbleweed Communications, Plumtree Software, Sendmail, Workboard, and Westbridge Technology.
Its investments also include Airbnb,[3] Aspen Avionics,[citation needed] HyTrust,[4] Lucidworks,[citation needed] Survios,[citation needed] and Telltale Games.[citation needed]
References
Primack, Dan (14 August 2000). "Granite Ventures breaks with past, forsaking H&Q name". Investment Dealers' Digest. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
"Granite Ventures II closes on $350m". AltAssets. 30 August 2005. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
Thomas, Owen. "Airbnb Is Turning Itself Into A Local-Business Guide". Business Insider. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
"HyTrust Receives Investment from CIA's Venture Capital Arm". www.securityweek.com. 2013-07-16. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
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Campanula carpaticaCampanula carpatica
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Campanula carpatica
Campanula carpatica a2.jpg
Scientific classificationedit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Campanulaceae
Genus: Campanula
Species: C. carpatica
Binomial name
Campanula carpatica
Jacq.
Campanula carpatica, the tussock bellflower[1][2] or Carpathian harebell, is a species of flowering plant in the family Campanulaceae, native to the Carpathian Mountains of Central Europe. It is a low-growing herbaceous perennial, with long stems bearing solitary blue bell-shaped flowers. It was introduced to the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew in 1774 by Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin.[3] Several cultivars in shades of white, blue, pink and purple, have been developed for garden use.[4]
This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[5]
References
BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
"Campanula carpatica". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
William Curtis (1790). "The Botanical Magazine": 117.
RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965.
"RHS Plant Selector - Campanula carpatica". Retrieved 15 April 2020.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carpathian harebell (Campanula carpatica).
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q159198Wikispecies: Campanula carpaticaBioLib: 96471EoL: 577817EPPO: CMPCAEUNIS: 165259GBIF: 5410826GRIN: 8749iNaturalist: 159757IPNI: 140068-1IRMNG: 11337195ITIS: 34480MichiganFlora: 694NBN: NBNSYS0000033455NCBI: 171910Plant List: kew-364195PLANTS: CACA37POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:140068-1Tropicos: 5500204WCSP: 364195WFO: wfo-0000826758
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Categories: CampanulaFlora of Eastern EuropeGarden plants of EuropeGroundcoversPlants described in 1770Taxa named by Nikolaus Joseph von JacquinAsterales stubs
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CarpathiteCarpathite
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Carpathite
Carpathite-258272.jpg
Carpathite from New Idria District, California USA
General
Category Organic mineral
Formula
(repeating unit) C24H12
Strunz classification 10.BA.30
Crystal system Monoclinic
Crystal class Prismatic (2/m)
(same H-M symbol)
Space group P21/c, P21/n[1]
Unit cell a = 1625 pm, b = 463.8 pm, c = 1042 pm; β = 111°10';[1] Z = 2
Identification
Color Yellow, yellowish brown on exposure
Crystal habit Acicular to thin tabular in bladed groups and fibrous radiating aggregates
Cleavage Perfect on [001], [100] and [201]
Fracture Splintery
Tenacity Flexible, nearly plastic
Mohs scale hardness 1.5
Luster Vitreous - adamantine
Streak Yellow white
Diaphaneity Transparent
Specific gravity 1.35
Optical properties Biaxial (+/-)
Refractive index nα = 1.760 - 1.780 nβ = 1.977 - 1.982 nγ = 2.050 - 2.150
Birefringence δ = 0.290 - 0.370
Melting point 432.8 °C [2]
Other characteristics Fluorescent - electric blue to blue-green
References [3][4][5][6]
Carpathite is a very rare hydrocarbon mineral, consisting of exceptionally pure coronene (C24H12), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.[7][8] The name has been spelled karpatite[2] and the mineral was improperly renamed pendletonite.[1]
Contents
1 Discovery
2 Structure
3 Occurrence
4 References
Discovery
The mineral was first described in 1955 for an occurrence in Transcarpathian Oblast, Ukraine. It was named for the Carpathian Mountains.[4]
In 1967, unaware of the earlier description, Joseph Murdoch analyzed and described a specimen from the Picacho Peak area of San Benito County, California and named it "pendletonite".[1]
Structure
Carpathite has the same crystal structure of pure coronene. The molecules are planar and lie in two sets with roughly perpendicular orientations. Molecules in the same set are parallel and partially offset, with planes 0.3463 nm apart. That is slightly larger than the inter-layer distance of graphite layers (0.335 nm), and much larger than the C-C bond lengths within the molecule (about 0.14 nm). This "corrugated layer" structure is highly resistant to intercalation, which apparently explains the purity of the mineral.[2]
Occurrence
In the Ukraine discovery location, it occurs at the contact zone of a diorite intrusive into argillite within cavities, and is associated with idrialite, amorphous organic material, calcite, barite, quartz, cinnabar, and metacinnabar.[6] It has also been reported in the Presov Region of the Slovak Republic[4] and in the Kamchatka Oblast in Russia.[4]
In the California location, it occurs in centimeter-size veins, associated (and somewhat contemporaneous) with quartz and cinnabar, in a silicified matrix. Crystals are up to 10 × 1 × 1 mm.[1] Carbon isotope ratios and the morphology of the deposit indicate that the coronene was produced from organic matter in oceanic sediment, thermally decomposed, purified through hydrothermal transportation and chemical reactions, and deposition below 250 °C, after the other minerals in the intrusion.[2]
References
Joseph Murdoch and Theodore A. Geissman (1967): "Pendletonite, a new hydrocarbon mineral from California". American Mineralogist, volume 52, issues 5-6, pages 611–616. Quote: "Mr. Forrest Cureton, who sent in the specimens, has asked that the mineral, if it turned out to be new, be named after Mr. Norman H. Pendleton, of Santa Cruz, California, who was apparently the first to suspect that the crystals were not valentinite"
Takuya Echigo, Mitsuyoshi Kimata, and Teruyuki Maruoka (2007): "Crystal-chemical and carbon-isotopic characteristics of karpatite (C24H12) from the Picacho Peak Area, San Benito County, California: Evidences for the hydrothermal formation". American Mineralogist, volume 92, issues 8-9, pages 1262–1269. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2509
Mineralienatlas
Mindat with location data
Webmineral data
Handbook of Mineralogy
Max Blumer (1975): "Curtisite, idrialite and pendletonite, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon minerals: Their composition and origin" Chemical Geology, volume 16, issue 4, pages 245-256. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(75)90064-9
Stephen A. Wise, Robert M. Campbell, W. Raymond West, Milton L. Lee, Keith D. Bartle (1986): "Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon minerals curtisite, idrialite and pendletonite using high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Chemical Geology, volume 54, issues 3–4, pages 339-357. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(86)90148-8
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Categories: Organic mineralsMonoclinic mineralsMinerals in space group 14Mineral stubs
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MessinaMessina
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This article is about the city in Sicily, Italy. For the city in South Africa, see Musina. For other uses, see Messina (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Messenia, a region of Greece.
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (January 2022) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
Messina
Missina (Sicilian)
Messène (Greek)
Comune
Metropolitan City of Messina
Collage Messina.jpg
Flag of Messina
Flag
Coat of arms of Messina
Coat of arms
Position of the commune in the Metropolitan City
Position of the commune in the Metropolitan City
Location of Messina
Messina is located in ItalyMessinaMessina
Location of Messina in Italy
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Coordinates: 38°11′37″N 15°33′15″ECoordinates: 38°11′37″N 15°33′15″E
Country Italy
Region Sicily
Metropolitan city Messina (ME)
Government
• Mayor Cateno De Luca
Area[1]
• Total 213.23 km2 (82.33 sq mi)
Elevation 3 m (10 ft)
Population (31 March 2019)[3]
• Total 231,708
• Density 1,100/km2 (2,800/sq mi)
Demonym(s) Messinese
Time zone UTC+1 (CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST)
Postal code
98100
Dialing code 090
ISTAT code 083048
Patron saint Madonna of the Letter
Saint day June 3
Website Official website
Messina (/mɛˈsiːnə/, also US: /mɪˈ-/,[4][5][6] Italian: [mesˈsiːna] (audio speaker iconlisten); Sicilian: Missina [mɪsˈsiːna]; Latin: Messana; Ancient Greek: Μεσσήνη, romanized: Messḗnē) is the capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of more than 231,000[7] inhabitants in the city proper and about 650,000 in the Metropolitan City. It is located near the northeast corner of Sicily, at the Strait of Messina and it is an important access terminal to Calabria region, Villa San Giovanni, Reggio Calabria on the mainland. According to Eurostat[8] the FUA of the metropolitan area of Messina has, in 2014, 277,584 inhabitants.
The city's main resources are its seaports (commercial and military shipyards), cruise tourism, commerce, and agriculture (wine production and cultivating lemons, oranges, mandarin oranges, and olives). The city has been a Roman Catholic Archdiocese and Archimandrite seat since 1548 and is home to a locally important international fair. The city has the University of Messina, founded in 1548 by Ignatius of Loyola.
Contents
1 History
2 Climate
3 Government
4 Main sights
4.1 Religious architecture
4.2 Civil and military architecture
4.3 Monuments
4.4 Museums
5 Public transport
5.1 Buses
6 Sports team
7 Notable people
7.1 Actors
7.2 Artists and designers
7.3 Politicians, civil service, military
7.4 Musicians, composers
7.5 Religion
7.6 Sports
7.7 Researchers, academics
7.8 Others
8 Literary references
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Sources
12 External links
History
See also: Timeline of Messina
13th-century coins minted during the reign of Frederick II.
17th century map of Messina
An image of the 1908 Messina earthquake aftermath. Ruins of the Duomo
Founded by Greek colonists in the 8th century BC, Messina was originally called Zancle (Greek: Ζάγκλη), from the Greek ζάγκλον meaning "scythe" because of the shape of its natural harbour (though a legend attributes the name to King Zanclus). A comune of its Metropolitan City, located at the southern entrance of the Strait of Messina, is to this day called 'Scaletta Zanclea'. Solinus write that the city of Metauros was established by people from the Zancle.[9]
In the early 5th century BC, Anaxilas of Rhegium renamed it Messene (Μεσσήνη) in honour of the Greek city Messene (See also List of traditional Greek place names). Later, Micythus was the ruler of Rhegium and Zancle, and he also founded the city of Pyxus.[10] The city was sacked in 397 BC by the Carthaginians and then reconquered by Dionysius I of Syracuse.
a tract of around 30 kilometres of beaches of Messina
the Feluca, a typical boat used by the fishermen of Messina to hunt swordfish
In 288 BC the Mamertines seized the city by treachery, killing all the men and taking the women as their wives. The city became a base from which they ravaged the countryside, leading to a conflict with the expanding regional empire of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River and besieged Messina. Carthage assisted the Mamertines because of a long-standing conflict with Syracuse over dominance in Sicily. When Hiero attacked a second time in 264 BC, the Mamertines petitioned the Roman Republic for an alliance, hoping for more reliable protection. Although initially reluctant to assist lest it encourage other mercenary groups to mutiny, Rome was unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and encroach on Italy. Rome, therefore, entered into an alliance with the Mamertines. In 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian Peninsula. At the end of the First Punic War it was a free city allied with Rome. In Roman times Messina, then known as Messana, had an important pharos (lighthouse). Messana was the base of Sextus Pompeius, during his war against Octavian.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city was successively ruled by Goths from 476, then by the Byzantine Empire in 535, by the Arabs in 842, and in 1061 by the Norman brothers Robert Guiscard and Roger Guiscard (later count Roger I of Sicily). In 1189 the English King Richard I ("The Lionheart") stopped at Messina en route to the Holy Land for the Third Crusade and briefly occupied the city after a dispute over the dowry of his sister, who had been married to William the Good, King of Sicily. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona, the illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily was the strategos of Messina.
In 1347, Messina was one of the first points of entry for the black death into Western Europe. Genoese galleys travelling from the infected city of Kaffa carried plague into the Messina ports. Kaffa had been infected via Asian trade routes and siege from infected Mongol armies led by Janibeg; it was a departure point for many Italian merchants who fled the city to Sicily. Contemporary accounts from Messina tell of the arrival of "Death Ships" from the East, which floated to shore with all the passengers on board already dead or dying of plague. Plague-infected rats probably also came aboard these ships. The black death ravaged Messina and rapidly spread northward into mainland Italy from Sicily in the following few months.
In 1548 St. Ignatius founded there the first Jesuit college in the world, which later gave birth to the Studium Generale (the current University of Messina).[citation needed] The Christian ships that won the Battle of Lepanto (1571) left from Messina: the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes, who took part in the battle, recovered for some time in the Grand Hospital. The city reached the peak of its splendour in the early 17th century, under Spanish domination: at the time it was one of the ten greatest cities in Europe.
In 1674 the city rebelled against the foreign garrison. It managed to remain independent for some time, thanks to the help of the French king Louis XIV, but in 1678, with the Peace of Nijmegen, it was reconquered by the Spaniards and sacked: the university, the senate and all the privileges of autonomy it had enjoyed since the Roman times were abolished. A massive fortress was built by the occupants and Messina decayed steadily. In 1743, 48,000 died of a second wave of plague in the city.[11]
In 1783, an earthquake devastated much of the city, and it took decades to rebuild and rekindle the cultural life of Messina. In 1847 it was one of the first cities in Italy where Risorgimento riots broke out. In 1848 it rebelled openly against the reigning Bourbons, but was heavily suppressed again. Only in 1860, after the Battle of Milazzo, the Garibaldine troops occupied the city. One of the main figures of the unification of Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini, was elected deputy at Messina in the general elections of 1866. Another earthquake of less intensity damaged the city on 16 November 1894. The city was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake and associated tsunami on the morning of 28 December 1908, killing about 100,000 people and destroying most of the ancient architecture. The city was largely rebuilt in the following year.
It incurred further damage from the massive Allied air bombardments of 1943; before and during the Allied invasion of Sicily. Messina, owing to its strategic importance as a transit point for Axis troops and supplies sent to Sicily from mainland Italy, was a prime target for the British and American air forces, which dropped some 6,500 tons of bombs in the span of a few months.[12] These raids destroyed one-third of the city, and caused 854 deaths among the population.[13] The city was awarded a Gold Medal of Military Valor and one for Civil Valor by the Italian government in memory of the event and the subsequent effort of reconstruction.[14]
In June 1955, Messina was the location of the Messina Conference of Western European foreign ministers which led to the creation of the European Economic Community.[15] The conference was held mainly in Messina's City Hall building (it), and partly in nearby Taormina.
The city is home to a small Greek-speaking minority, which arrived from the Peloponnese between 1533-34 when fleeing the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. They were officially recognised in 2012.[16]
Via Garibaldi, one of the main streets of Messina. After the 1908 earthquake it was widened and lengthened to the south to conform to the new urban plan
Climate
Messina has a subtropical Mediterranean climate with long, hot summers with low diurnal temperature variation with consistent dry weather. In winter, Messina is rather wet and mild. Diurnals remain low and remain averaging above 10 °C (50 °F) lows even during winter. It is rather rainier than Reggio Calabria on the other side of the Messina Strait, a remarkable climatic difference for such a small distance.
Climate data for Messina
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 24.6
(76.3) 26.9
(80.4) 32.0
(89.6) 29.6
(85.3) 33.6
(92.5) 43.4
(110.1) 43.6
(110.5) 41.8
(107.2) 40.5
(104.9) 36.4
(97.5) 29.2
(84.6) 26.6
(79.9) 43.6
(110.5)
Average high °C (°F) 14.4
(57.9) 14.7
(58.5) 16.1
(61.0) 18.3
(64.9) 22.5
(72.5) 26.8
(80.2) 30.0
(86.0) 30.5
(86.9) 27.5
(81.5) 23.2
(73.8) 18.8
(65.8) 15.8
(60.4) 21.6
(70.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 12.3
(54.1) 12.2
(54.0) 13.5
(56.3) 15.4
(59.7) 19.5
(67.1) 23.6
(74.5) 26.7
(80.1) 27.3
(81.1) 24.5
(76.1) 20.5
(68.9) 16.4
(61.5) 13.7
(56.7) 18.8
(65.8)
Average low °C (°F) 10.1
(50.2) 9.8
(49.6) 10.9
(51.6) 12.5
(54.5) 16.4
(61.5) 20.4
(68.7) 23.4
(74.1) 24.2
(75.6) 21.5
(70.7) 17.8
(64.0) 14.1
(57.4) 11.6
(52.9) 16.1
(60.9)
Record low °C (°F) 0.2
(32.4) −0.1
(31.8) −0.2
(31.6) 4.3
(39.7) 7.5
(45.5) 12.4
(54.3) 15.3
(59.5) 14.4
(57.9) 12.5
(54.5) 7.5
(45.5) 5.1
(41.2) 1.0
(33.8) −0.2
(31.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 102.9
(4.05) 100.2
(3.94) 83.4
(3.28) 68.3
(2.69) 33.8
(1.33) 12.7
(0.50) 20.0
(0.79) 25.6
(1.01) 63.9
(2.52) 113.7
(4.48) 119.5
(4.70) 102.9
(4.05) 846.9
(33.34)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 10.6 9.8 8.6 8.5 3.9 1.9 2.0 2.5 5.6 8.5 11.0 10.9 83.8
Average relative humidity (%) 73 71 69 69 67 64 63 66 68 70 73 74 69
Mean monthly sunshine hours 114.7 130.0 170.5 207.0 257.3 294.0 331.7 306.9 240.0 189.1 138.0 111.6 2,490.8
Source 1: Servizio Meteorologico (temperature and precipitation data 1971–2000);[17] Clima en Messina desde 1957 hasta 2013[18][better source needed]
Source 2: Messina Osservatorio Meteorologico (temperature records since 1909);[19][better source needed] Servizio Meteorologico (relative humidity and sun data 1961–1990)[20]
Government
See also: List of mayors of Messina
[icon]
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Main sights
This section is written like a travel guide rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. If a travel guide is intended, use of Wikivoyage is strongly suggested. (January 2022)
Panorama of Messina Strait seen from Messina towards the Italian mainland. Reggio Calabria can be seen on the right.
Abandoned houses dating from the 18th century in the ancient quarter of Tirone
Religious architecture
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Cathedral of Messina.
Church of the Santissima Annunziata dei Catalani.
13th century Church of Santa Maria degli Alemanni
The extant octagonal tower of the 11th century Matagrifone Castle and the Cristo Re sanctuary
The Cathedral (12th century), containing the remains of the king Conrad, ruler of Germany and Sicily in the 13th century. The building had to be almost entirely rebuilt in 1919–20, following the devastating 1908 earthquake, and again in 1943, after a fire triggered by Allied bombings. The original Norman structure can be recognised in the apsidal area. The façade has three late Gothic portals, the central of which probably dates back to the early 15th century. The architrave is decorated with a sculpture of Christ Among the Evangelists and various representations of men, animals and plants. The tympanum dates back to 1468. The interior is organised in a nave and two equally long aisles divided by files of 28 columns. Some decorative elements belong the original building, although the mosaics in the apse are reconstructions. Tombs of illustrious men besides Conrad IV include those of Archbishops Palmer (died in 1195), Guidotto de Abbiate (14th century) and Antonio La Legname (16th century). Special interest is held by the Chapel of the Sacrament (late 16th century), with scenic decorations and 14th-century mosaics. The bell tower holds the Messina astronomical clock, one of the largest astronomical clocks in the world, built-in 1933 by the Ungerer Company of Strasbourg. The belfry's mechanically-animated statues, which illustrate events from the civil and religious history of the city every day at noon, are a popular tourist attraction.
The Sanctuary of Santa Maria del Carmelo (near the Courthouse), built-in 1931, contains a 17th-century statue of the Virgin Mary. See also Chiesa del Carmine.
The Sanctuary of Montevergine, where the incorrupt body of Saint Eustochia Smeralda Calafato is preserved.
The Church of the Santissima Annunziata dei Catalani (late 12th–13th century). Dating from the late Norman period, it was transformed in the 13th century when the nave was shortened and the façade added. It has a cylindrical apse and a high dome emerging from a high tambour. Noteworthy is the external decoration of the transept and the dome area, with a series of blind arches separated by small columns, clearly reflecting Arabic architectural influences.
The Church of Santa Maria degli Alemanni (early 13th century), which was formerly a chapel of the Teutonic Knights. It is a rare example of pure Gothic architecture in Sicily, as is witnessed by the arched windows and shapely buttresses.
The giants Mata and Grifone, whose stories are told about the city, are brought around Messina during the second week of August
The Madonna della Lettera that dominates the port of Messina is the Patron Saint of the city, celebrated on the 3rd of June
Civil and military architecture
Fountain of Orion in Piazza Duomo
Porta Grazia
Statue of Don John of Austria, hero of Lepanto
Palazzo della Provincia, Corso Cavour
The 'Botanical Garden Pietro Castelli of the University of Messina.
The Palazzo Calapaj-d'Alcontresj, an example of 18th-century Messinese architecture which is one of the few noble palazzi to have survived the 1908 earthquake.
The Forte del Santissimo Salvatore, a 16th-century fort in the Port of Messina.
The Forte Gonzaga, a 16th-century fort overlooking Messina.
The Porta Grazia, 17th-century gate of the "Real Cittadella di Messina", by Domenico Biundo and Antonio Amato, a fortress still existing in the harbour.
The Pylon, built in 1957 together with a twin located across the Strait of Messina, to carry a 220 kV overhead power line bringing electric power to the island. At the time of their construction, the two electric pylons were the highest in the world. The power line has since been replaced by an underwater cable, but the pylon still stands as a freely accessible tourist attraction.
The San Ranieri lighthouse, built in 1555.
The Palazzo della Provincia (Palazzo dei Leoni), provincial Seat, built in 1914 by Alessandro Giunta.
The Palace of Culture, built in 2009.
Monuments
The Fountain of Orion, a monumental civic sculpture located next to the Cathedral, built in 1547 by Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli, student of Michelangelo, with a Neoplatonic-alchemical program. It was considered by art historian Bernard Berenson "the most beautiful fountain of the sixteenth century in Europe".
The Fountain of Neptune, looking towards the harbour, built by Montorsoli in 1557.
The monument to John of Austria, by Andrea Camalech (1572)
The Senatory Fountain, built in 1619.
The Four Fountains, though only two elements of the four-cornered complex survive today.
One of the two surviving Four Fountains dating from the 17-18th centuries. Located on the corner of Via 1 Settembre and Via Cardines
Museums
Museo Regionale di Messina (MuMe) hosting notable paintings by Caravaggio, Antonello da Messina, Alonzo Rodriguez, Mattia Preti
The Galleria d'Arte Contemporanea di Messina, hostings paintings by Giò Pomodoro, Renato Guttuso, Lucio Fontana, Corrado Cagli, Giuseppe Migneco, Max Liebermann
Public transport
The new Messina Centrale station building was projected following the modern criteria of the futurist architect Angiolo Mazzoni, and is extended through the stations square. It is at almost contiguous with Messina Marittima station, located by the port and constituting a rail/ferry interchange point to Villa San Giovanni station across the Strait of Messina.
The station is electrified and served by regional trains, by an experimental suburban railway to Giampilieri[21] and by the modern Messina tramway[22] (at "Repubblica" stop, on station's square), opened in 2003. This line is 7.7 kilometres (4.8 mi) and links the city's central railway station with the city centre and harbour.
For long distance transport it counts some InterCity and ICN night trains to Rome, linking it also with Milan, Turin, Venice, Genoa, Bologna, Florence, and other cities. It is also part of the projected Berlin–Palermo railway axis.
Buses
Messina's public bus system is operated by ATM Messina[23] which covers a net area of 34 km (21 mi). About 36 different routes reach every part of the city.
Sports team
A.C.R. Messina
S.S.D. Città di Messina
Notable people
See also: Category:People from Messina
List of notable people from Messina or connected to Messina, listed by career and then in alphabetical order by last name.
Actors
Adolfo Celi, actor (born 1922)
Tano Cimarosa, actor (born 1922)
Maria Grazia Cucinotta, actress (born 1968)
Nino Frassica, actor (born 1950)
Massimo Mollica, actor (born 1929)
Artists and designers
Girolamo Alibrandi, painter (born in 1470)
Anna Maria Arduino (1672 – 1700) 17th century painter, writer and socialite, served as the Princess of Piombino, from Messina.[24]
Antonio Barbalonga, painter (17th century)
Francesco Comande, painter (16th century)
Antonello da Messina, major painter of the Renaissance (born 1430)
Giuseppe Migneco, painter (born 1908)
Giovanni Quagliata, painter (born 1603)
Filippo Juvarra, Baroque architect (born 1678)
Mariano Riccio, painter (born 1510)
Alonzo Rodriguez, painter (born 1578)
Giovanni Tuccari, painter (born 1667)
Politicians, civil service, military
Giuseppe La Farina, leader of the Italian Risorgimento (born 1815)
Gaetano Martino, politician, physician and professor. (born 1900)
Giuseppe Natoli, lawyer and politician (born 1815)
Luigi Rizzo, naval officer and First World War hero (born 1887)
Musicians, composers
Mario Aspa, composer (born 1797)
Filippo Bonaffino (fl. 1623), Italian madrigal composer
Religion
Eustochia Smeralda Calafato, saint (born 1434)
Annibale Maria Di Francia, saint (born 1851)
Sports
Tony Cairoli, motocross world champion (born 1985)
Vincenzo Nibali, cyclist (born 1984)
Antonio Stelitano, Italian footballer (born 1987)
Researchers, academics
Aristocles of Messene, peripatetic philosopher (1st century AD)
Dicaearchus, Greek philosopher and mathematician (born 350 BC)
Caio Domenico Gallo, historian (born 1697)
Francesco Maurolico, astronomer, mathematician and humanist (born 1494)
Agostino Scilla, painter, paleontologist, geologist and pioneer in the study of fossils (born 1629)
Giuseppe Seguenza, naturalist and geologist (born 1833)
Giuseppe Sergi, anthropologist and psychologist (born 1841)
Others
Stefano D'Arrigo, writer (born 1919)
Guido delle Colonne, judge and writer (13th century)
Literary references
The statue of Messina
Pitoni, a common dish in Messina
Numerous writers set their works in Messina, including:
Plutarch – The Life of Pompey (40 BC?)
Giovanni Boccaccio – Decameron IV day V novel, Lisabetta da Messina – IV day IV Novel, Gerbino ed Elissa (1351)
Matteo Bandello – Novelliere First Part, novel XXII (1554)
William Shakespeare – Much Ado about Nothing (1598) and Antony and Cleopatra (1607)
Molière – L'Etourdi ou Les Contre-temps (1654)
Friedrich Schiller – Die Braut von Messina (The Bride of Messina, 1803)
Silvio Pellico – Eufemio da Messina (1818)
Friedrich Nietzsche – Idyllen aus Messina (Idylls from Messina, 1882)
Giovanni Pascoli – poem L'Aquilone (1904)
Elio Vittorini – Le donne di Messina (Women of Messina, 1949) and Conversazione in Sicilia (Conversations in Sicily, 1941)
Stefano D'Arrigo – Horcynus Orca (1975)
Julien Green – Demain n'existe pas (1985)
See also
International Rally of Messina
Messina Centrale railway station
Messina Grand Prix held between 1959 and 1961
Strait of Messina Bridge
Torre Faro 224 metres tall lattice tower
Zanclean Age of the Pliocene Epoch in geology, named for Zancle, ancient Messina
Messinian Age of the Miocene Epoch in geology, named for Messina
Notes
"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
"Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
Data from ISTAT
"Messina" (US) and "Messina". Oxford Dictionaries UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. n.d. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
"Messina". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
"Messina". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
Population of Messina, Italy Archived 2014-05-13 at the Wayback Machine Geonames Geographical database
"Population on 1 January by age groups and sex - functional urban areas [urb_lpop1]". Eurostat. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
Solinus, Polyhistor, 2.10
Diodorus Siculus, Library, § 11.59.1
"Epidemiology of the Black Death and Successive Waves of Plague" by Samuel K Cohn JR. Medical History.
La Piazza Marittima di Messina (1939-1943)
Proposta l’istituzione di una “giornata della memoria” degli 854 messinesi morti sotto i bombardamenti del ‘43
Presidenza della Repubblica
"The Messina Declaration 1955 final document of The Conference of Messina 1 to 3 June 1955 – birth of the European Union". Eu-history.leidenuniv.nl. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
"Delimiting the territory of the Greek linguistic minority of Messina" (PDF).
"MESSINA" (PDF). Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
"Messina". Retrieved 8 February 2013.
"Messina Osservatorio Meteorologico". Servizio Meteorologico dell’Aeronautica Militare. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
"MESSINA". Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Metroferrovia Messina-Giampilieri on Ferroviesiciliane (in Italian)
Messina Tramway on ATM website(in Italian)
"ATM Messina Home". Retrieved 22 July 2021.
"Donne in Arcadia (1690-1800)". www.arcadia.uzh.ch. Retrieved 2020-08-09.
Sources
See also: Bibliography of the history of Messina
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Messina.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Messina.
Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Messina.
Official website Edit this at Wikidata (in Italian)
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Categories: Cities and towns in SicilyMunicipalities of the Metropolitan City of MessinaMessinaCoastal towns in SicilyMediterranean port cities and towns in ItalyCumaean coloniesEuboean colonies of Magna GraeciaPopulated places established in the 8th century BC8th-century BC establishments in ItalyGreek city-statesCities destroyed by earthquakesMessinianZanclean
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Mercedes-AMGMercedes-AMG
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Coordinates: 48.9186739°N 9.3232478°E
Mercedes-AMG GmbH
AMG logo.svg
Type Subsidiary (GmbH)
Industry Automotive
Founded 1967; 55 years ago
(as AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH)
Burgstall a. d. Murr, Germany
Founders Hans Werner Aufrecht
Erhard Melcher
Fate Acquired by DaimlerChrysler (1999), and operating under Daimler AG
Headquarters Affalterbach, Germany
Area served Worldwide
Key people Philipp Schiemer (Chairman of the Board)[1]
Products
A
C
CL
CLA
CLK
CLS
E
G
GLA
GLB
GLC
GLE
GLS
GT
R
S
SL
SLC
SLK
SLS
Services Research and development
Number of employees ~2,900
Parent Mercedes-Benz AG (1999-present)[1]
Website www.mercedes-amg.com
Mercedes-AMG GmbH, commonly known as AMG, is the high-performance subsidiary of Mercedes-Benz AG.[1] AMG independently hires engineers and contracts with manufacturers to customize Mercedes-Benz AMG vehicles. The company has its headquarters in Affalterbach, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.
AMG was originally an independent engineering firm specializing in performance improvements for Mercedes-Benz vehicles. DaimlerChrysler AG took a controlling interest in 1999, then became the sole owner of AMG in 2005. Mercedes-AMG GmbH is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Mercedes-Benz AG,[1] which is owned by Daimler AG.[2]
AMG models typically have more aggressive looks, a higher level of performance, better handling, better stability and more extensive use of carbon fibre than their regular Mercedes-Benz counterparts.[3] AMG models are typically the most expensive and highest-performing variant of each Mercedes-Benz class.[3]
AMG variants are usually badged with two numerals, as opposed to regular Mercedes-Benz vehicles, which have three (e.g. "C 63" as opposed to "C 320").[4] The numerals do not always indicate engine size, but are rather a tribute to earlier heritage cars, such as the 300 SEL 6.3 litre. For example, newer-model AMG V8s such as the C 63 actually have 4.0L V8s.
The world's first stand-alone Mercedes-AMG dealership, AMG Sydney, was opened in Sydney, Australia in 2018.[5]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Development of the product range
1.2 Motor racing
1.3 Relationship with Pagani
1.4 Relationship with Aston Martin
1.5 Relationship with Lotus
2 Current AMG models
2.1 "35" M260 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
2.2 "45" M139 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
2.3 "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo
2.4 "43" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo
2.5 "53" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo
2.6 "55" M177 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo
2.7 "63" M177/M178 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo
3 Previous AMG models
3.1 "65" M275 6.0 L V12 Bi-Turbo
3.2 "63" M157 5.5 L V8 Bi-Turbo
3.3 "63" M156 6.2 L V8
3.4 "55" M152 5.5 L V8
3.5 "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo
3.6 "45" M133 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
3.7 "30" 3.0 L I5 diesel
3.8 "32" 3.2 L V6 KOMPRESSOR
3.9 "55" 5.4 L V8 KOMPRESSOR
3.9.1 Previous 55 AMG models
3.10 "63" M137 6.3 L V12
3.11 "60", "73", "70", "55"
3.12 "63" M156 6.2 L V8
3.13 Black Series
3.14 Electric Drive
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Notes
5.2 Bibliography
6 External links
History
AMG logo on a Mercedes E 63 AMG (W212)
AMG was founded as a racing engine forge in 1967 under the name AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH (German for 'AMG Engine Production and Development Limited') by former Mercedes-Benz engineers Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher in Burgstall an der Murr, near Stuttgart. The initialism 'AMG' stands for Aufrecht, Melcher and Großaspach (Aufrecht's birth town). In 1976, most of AMG moved to Affalterbach, with the racing-engine development remaining at the old location in Burgstall. At this time, Erhard Melcher ceased to be a partner, but he continued to be an employee at the Burgstall location.
In 1993, with AMG having become a high-profile purveyor of modified Mercedes-Benz cars, Daimler-Benz AG and AMG signed a contract of cooperation, allowing AMG to leverage Daimler-Benz's extensive dealer network and leading to commonly developed vehicles (the first one being the Mercedes-Benz E 50 AMG, in 1993).
On 1 January 1999, DaimlerChrysler AG (as it was called between 1998 and 2007) acquired 51 percent of AMG shares, and AMG was renamed to Mercedes-AMG GmbH.[6] Racing engine development was divested and continues to exist in Burgstall under the name HWA (Aufrecht's initials). On 1 January 2005, Aufrecht sold his remaining shares to DaimlerChrysler, and since then, Mercedes-AMG GmbH has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Daimler AG.[7]
Development of the product range
AMG Five Spoke Road Wheel 8JX16 Version 1
AMG started off by designing and testing racing engines. It expanded its business into building custom road cars based upon standard Mercedes cars. AMG initially produced a range of unofficial upgrade and accessories packages mainly for the Mercedes-Benz R107 and C107 (1971–1989 SL roadster),[8] Mercedes-Benz W116 (1972–1980 S-class), Mercedes-Benz W123 (1976–1985 E-class predecessor), Mercedes-Benz W124 (1984–1997 E-class), Mercedes-Benz W126 (1979–1992 S-class), Mercedes-Benz R129 (1989–2001 SL roadster), and Mercedes-Benz W201 (1990–1993 C-class) models.
During the early 1980s and up until 1990, AMG offered a variety of engine performance packages, alloy wheels and styling products as an entirely independent company from Daimler-Benz. In 1990, AMG signed a co-operation agreement with Daimler-Benz, and AMG options and cars were then offered in Mercedes-Benz showrooms; in 1999 Daimler AG, then known as DaimlerChrysler AG, bought the controlling share of AMG and made them part of the official Mercedes-Benz line-up.[9]
Typical AMG performance enhancements, which the buyer could custom order, included increased engine displacements (5.2 litre, 5.4 litre), performance top ends with port and polished heads and intake, lightened valve train, and more aggressive cams. The DOHC 32V engine had also just been developed and was the pinnacle of AMG performance. A Getrag five-speed manual transmission could be ordered from AMG, and Mercedes had not offered a manual transmission V8 since the early 1970s.
The performance wheels offered during the same period were 15-inch or 16-inch ATS AMG Five Spoke Road Wheels, commonly referred to as Pentas. Penta was actually a UK-based company that supplemented the high demand for the AMG wheel at the time with a replica and only a very slight styling difference, but they were not made or endorsed by AMG. The genuine AMG wheels were often coupled with an AMG performance suspension package that included uprated and lowered springs, and re-valved shock absorbers.
Another popular cosmetic upgrade were the AMG body kits. These ranged from subtle front spoilers to aggressive Wide Body kits for the W126 coupes. Other options included Recaro seats, smaller diameter steering wheels, instrument clusters, chrome delete option (all brightworks colour-coded or painted satin black), refrigerators, shift knobs, hi-fi stereo systems, custom upholstery and enhanced interior wood packages.
The release of the AMG Hammer sedan in 1986, based on the W124 E-Class, took AMG's performance modifications for a fast midsized sedan to a new level. AMG made the world's fastest passenger sedan at the time, nicknamed the Hammer,[10] by squeezing Mercedes 5.6-litre V8 tuned by AMG to 360 hp into a midsized sedan. It was very aggressive for the era, with 32-valve cylinder heads and twin camshafts, and said to be faster than the Lamborghini Countach from 60 to 120 mph.[11] Later models were even more powerful and introduced the 17-inch AMG Aero 1 Hammer wheels. 1986 was also the year Mercedes introduced the 560 M117 engine. This provided yet another opportunity for customers to order the largest AMG displacement available at the time, the 6L 100 mm bore SOHC or DOHC engines available for both the W126 coupe and sedans.
Through the early 2000s, AMG focused principally on supercharged V8 and V6 engines, but the company officially abandoned this technology in 2006 with the introduction of the naturally aspirated 6.2 L M156 V8. On 16 January 2006, Mercedes-AMG Chairman Volker Mornhinweg told AutoWeek that the company would use turbocharging for higher output rather than supercharging. For 2011, AMG released the M157 5.5L bi-turbo V8, which has supplanted the M156 in its full-sized cars such as the S-Class and CL-Class (and is trickling down to the CLS, E-Class, and ML-class). In 2012, Mercedes-AMG Chairman Olla Kallenius said that Mercedes-AMG will not produce diesel engines to compete with BMW's tri-turbo diesels (BMW M Performance range).[12]
Mercedes AMG DTM car (2003)
Although there were some AMG models in the 1980s with manual transmissions, almost all recent models have used automatics (5G-Tronic and later 7G-Tronic with Speedshift), in contrast to BMW M, which used manual and recently automatic transmissions (the current type being a dual clutch transmission). Starting in 2009, however, AMG began adopting the seven-speed AMG SpeedShift MCT automatic transmission.
Although these are considered the most well known in-house tuning divisions, Mercedes-AMG has a considerably different philosophy than BMW M. Compared to BMW M, Mercedes-AMG is "less narrow in its sporting focus, yet still combining sledgehammer performance with relaxed handling, cultured comfort, and practicality".[13]
While founders Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher had emphasized proper racing cars, Mercedes-AMG had diverged considerably from this philosophy in recent years, with their offerings being well known for straight-line acceleration but poor handling dynamics. However, current Mercedes-AMG chairman Volker Mornhinweg has urged the division to return to its roots of building sports cars.[14]
Motor racing
AMG 300 SEL 6.8, "Red Sow" (1971)
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, AMG entered the big Mercedes-Benz 300SEL 6.3 V8 saloon, affectionately named the "Red Sow", in the 1971 Spa 24 Hours, and the European Touring Car Championship. AMG and Mercedes worked together on Mercedes-Benz W201 cars for the 1988 Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM, German Touring Car Championship). AMG was made the official partner.
When DaimlerChrysler acquired a majority share of AMG in 1999, the motor racing department was divested into HWA AG. Their first car was the ill-fated Mercedes-Benz CLR. Since 2000, HWA builds and runs the cars for Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), as well as the M271 engine tuned for use in Formula 3.
In 2000, an extensively modified one-off Mercedes-Benz AMG CLK 55 was built by the AMG Factory as a purpose-built race car to compete in the 2001 Targa Tasmania 7 day road race. Mick Doohan was the works Mercedes-Benz AMG driver.[15]
AMG engine display at the Pagani factory
Six successive lightly modified Mercedes-Benz AMG models (including, most recently, a C190 GT R) have acted as the safety cars for the FIA Formula One World Championship.
Since 2010, the SLS AMG GT3 and the AMG GT3 has been competing in GT competitions around the world, such as the FIA GT3 European Championship, Blancpain Endurance Series, Blancpain Sprint Series, VLN, 24 Hours of Nürburgring, British GT Championship, Super GT, Australian GT Championship, Bathurst 12 Hour, Dubai 24 Hour, Macau GT Cup and Pirelli World Challenge.
In late 2011, after the end of the Formula One season, Mercedes GP Petronas announced that it would be using the AMG branding for its F1 efforts, changing its name to Mercedes AMG Petronas for the 2012 season onwards.[16]
Three AMG E-Class V8 Supercars competed in the Australian Supercars Championship from 2013 to 2015, operated by Erebus Motorsport under the AMG Customer Sports Program.[17]
Relationship with Pagani
AMG also provides engines for the Zonda and Huayra cars. The M297 7,291 cc displacement V12 engines were originally used in the 1995 SL 73 AMG. It is the largest displacement naturally aspirated engine provided by AMG and is now exclusively used by Pagani.
Relationship with Aston Martin
On 25 July 2013, Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd and Daimler AG announced moves towards a technical partnership with Mercedes-AMG GmbH. The deal will see Aston Martin access significant Mercedes-AMG GmbH and Mercedes-Benz Cars' resources, allowing the development of bespoke V8 powertrains and the use of certain components of electric/electronic architecture. Daimler AG now owns a stake of 5% of non-voting shares in Aston Martin, joining existing shareholders Investment DAR, Adeem Investment and Investindustrial. The technical partnership will support Aston Martin's launch of a new generation of models and newly developed bespoke V8 powertrains.[18][19][20]
For the 2021 Formula One World Championship, the German marque will share the role of official Safety Car supplier with Aston Martin.
Relationship with Lotus
AMG also provides engines for the Lotus Emira. The M139 I4 engine that was originally used in the CLA 45 AMG.[21]
Current AMG models
AMG carbon fibre engine cover
All AMG engines - with the exception of the "35" M260 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo and "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo engine, as well as various other "43" and "53" models using the new M256 inline 6 engine - are hand built using a "one man, one engine" philosophy at the current AMG plant in Affalterbach, Germany. To signify this, each AMG engine builder stamps the engines they produce with an engraved plaque depicting their signature. According to Mercedes-Benz, there are only about 50 AMG engine builders.[22]
As part of the official Mercedes product line, the AMG models are sold side by side with regular production models, unlike those offered by other Mercedes tuning firms such as Brabus.
E 63 AMG carbon ceramic brake Geneva auto show 2011
"35" M260 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
Mercedes-AMG A 35
Mercedes-AMG CLA 35
Mercedes-AMG GLA 35
Mercedes-AMG GLB 35
"45" M139 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
Mercedes-AMG A 45/A 45 S 4MATIC+
Mercedes-AMG CLA 45/CLA 45 S 4MATIC+
Mercedes-AMG GLA 45/GLA 45 S 4MATIC+
At 310 kW (416 hp) and 500 nm in the 45 S variant, the M139 with twin-scroll turbo is the world's most powerful four-cylinder engine in serial production with a specific output of 208 hp per litre or 104 hp per cylinder.
"43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo
Mercedes-AMG GLC 43
With the launch of the 3.0l V6 gasoline engine with direct injection and twin turbo-charging, called M276 DE30AL, a new member has been added to the approved M276 V6 gasoline engine series.
"43" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo
Mercedes-AMG GT 43 4-Door Coupé
"53" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo
Mercedes-AMG E 53 (A238/C238/W213/S213)
Mercedes-AMG CLS 53 (C257)
Mercedes-AMG GT 53 4-Door Coupé
Mercedes-AMG GLE 53
These are powered by the new Mercedes-Benz M 256 inline six cylinder engine.
"55" M177 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo
Mercedes-AMG SL 55 4MATIC+
"63" M177/M178 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo
Mercedes-AMG GT
Mercedes-AMG C 63
Mercedes-AMG C 63 Coupe
Mercedes-AMG E 63
Mercedes-AMG GT
Mercedes-AMG SL 63 4MATIC+
Mercedes-AMG GT 63 4-Door Coupé
Mercedes-AMG S 63
Mercedes-AMG GLC 63
Mercedes-AMG GLC 63 Coupe
Mercedes-AMG G 63 (W463) second generation
Launched in the UK market in April 2015,[23] the 4-litre M178 V8 uses an unusual configuration where the position of the intake and exhaust are reversed, to create a more compact engine and hence vehicle design. This "hot inside v" configuration, as AMG calls it, has the exhaust gasses exiting into the central v area of the engine block where the engine's twin turbochargers are also mounted.
Previous AMG models
In addition to the models listed above, there were also predecessors to the current AMG models.
"65" M275 6.0 L V12 Bi-Turbo
Mercedes-Benz SL 65 AMG (2012)
The models listed below were powered by a variant of the Mercedes-Benz M275 engine.
2004–2013 S65 AMG
2004–2014 CL65 AMG
2004–2011 SL65 AMG
2012–2018 G65 AMG
2012–2018 Mercedes-AMG SL 65
2014–2019 Mercedes-AMG S 65
The AMG power-plant has an all-new design of the bi-turbo system, which features larger turbochargers and a new, more powerful charge-air cooling system, and the increase in the engine displacement (to 5980 cc) as well as many other engine design measures.[24] This allows it to produce a claimed 621 horsepower and 738 lb⋅ft (1,001 N⋅m) of torque.
"65" models used a 5-speed automatic transmission for a long time, as the newer 7G-Tronic wasn't able to handle the torque from the V12 engines. This was changed with the introduction of 2012 SL 65 AMG, which uses the same AMG SpeedShift MCT transmission as the rest of the AMG line-up.[25]
Coinciding with the facelift of the CL-Class for the 2011 model year, the 2011 CL 65 AMG had an enhanced engine. AMG redesigned the exhaust gas turbochargers and added new engine electronics. It produced 621 horsepower, pushing the car from 0–60 miles per hour (0–97 km/h) in 4.2 seconds (0.2 seconds faster than the 2011 CL 63), with an electronically limited top speed of 186 miles per hour (299 km/h). The update also improved fuel economy and reduced carbon emissions by 3.5% over the outgoing model.[26][27]
"63" M157 5.5 L V8 Bi-Turbo
The models listed below were powered by the M157 variant of the Mercedes-Benz M278 engine.
Mercedes-AMG CLS 63 (W219)
Mercedes-AMG E 63 (W212)
Mercedes-AMG G 63 (W463)
Mercedes-AMG GL 63 (X166 pre-facelift)
Mercedes-AMG GLE 63 (W166 facelift)
Mercedes-AMG GLS 63 (X166 facelift)
Mercedes-AMG M 63 (W166 pre-facelift)
Mercedes-AMG S 63 (W222 pre-facelift)
Mercedes-AMG SL 63 (R231)
E 63 AMG 4MATIC T
Mercedes-Benz CLS 63 AMG
Rumoured in 2009 and confirmed in 2010, AMG developed the M157, a 5.5-litre V8 with direct fuel injection and twin turbochargers. Power is rated at up to 577 bhp (430 kW; 585 PS) at 5,250-5,750rpm with a peak torque of 664 lb⋅ft (900 N⋅m) made between 2,000rpm and 4,500rpm (the amount of power and torque depends on model, but these are the maximum ratings).[28][29] Both engines are mated to Mercedes-Benz's 7-speed MCT transmission.[30][31][32] Unlike the M156 naturally aspirated 6.2 L V8, which was developed entirely within AMG, the M157 is based upon the M278 used in the regular Mercedes-Benz S-Class and CL-Class.[33] The M157 boasts 25% better fuel economy (10.5 litres per 100 kilometres versus 14.4 L/100 km in the European driving cycle) over the M156, meaning it avoids the US Gas Guzzler Tax for the first time ever, despite having up to 47 horsepower more. The M157's increased torque from both the regular version and performance package means the engine can be shifted into a taller gear sooner, keeping engine revs and fuel consumption to a minimum. The new M157 has an engine start/stop mode and is lightweight at 204 kg.[30][31][32] The M157 is said to be ideal for powering full-size sedans such as the S-Class, but the older M156 remains in production, as its more precise throttle response is still well suited to smaller sportier models (the C-Class), until the 2015 model arrives, which is powered by a 4.0 liter V8.[34]
5.5 L V8 BiTurbo models carry the "63" model designation, shared with the 6.2L V8 models.[35] Visually, the 2011 S 63 AMG is differentiated from the 2010 model (itself face-lifted over the 2009 S 63) by the more angular design of the chromed dual exhaust tips, which also sport embossed AMG logos, as well as new forged wheels.[36] For the CL 63 AMG, the new M157 engine coincides with the facelift of the CL-Class for the 2011 model year.
Despite common belief, 63 AMG models are typically faster than their 65 AMG counterparts. An S 63 AMG accelerates faster and handles better than an S 65 AMG (due to 4-wheel drive and decreased weight), and an SL 63 AMG accelerates faster than an SL 65 AMG due to decreased torque, lower weight, and better balance by use of the V8.[37][38]
Since 2013, AMG models with the S-Model package feature all-wheel drive, which allows for better handling and better acceleration. The Mercedes-Benz CLS 63 AMG S has been tested to accelerate to 60 mph in just 3.2 seconds, with a quarter mile time of 11.6 seconds.[39] This made it the quickest production sedan at the time. MotorTrend tested the 2014 E 63 AMG S with the M157 engine to produce an estimated 676 bhp (504 kW; 685 PS) and 631 lb⋅ft (856 N⋅m).[40]
"63" M156 6.2 L V8
2008 C63 AMG, C63 AMG Black Series (Sedan and Wagon) (facelifted for the 2012 model year)
Mercedes E63 AMG (W211)
Mercedes-Benz CLK 63 AMG, CLK 63 AMG Black Series
Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG (2009-2012)
Mercedes-Benz CL63 AMG
Mercedes-Benz ML63 AMG
Mercedes-Benz E63 AMG (W212, 2009-2011)
2010 SLS AMG (M159)
AMG developed its own V8 engine (dubbed M156 in development) for the DTM series. The M156 produces 451 horsepower and 443 ft-lbs of torque. The M156, in various states of tune, was used in models such as the SL 63, E 63, CLS 63, and S 63 until it was replaced by the M157 5.5 L Biturbo V8.
In 2009, AMG developed the M159 engine, which is based on the M156 engine, to use in SLS AMG. The M159 produces 583 horsepower and 489 lb-ft of torque in the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG GT, and 622 horsepower and 468 lb-ft in the SLS AMG Black Series.[41][42] There are also other AMG nameplates no longer in production:
1988–1993 190E AMG 3.2
1988–1993 300E AMG 3.4E, AMG 3.4CE, AMG 3.4TE
1992 "The Hammer" AMG Widebody Coupe
1993–1994 E 60 AMG
1994–1995 E 36 AMG
1995, 1997 S 70 AMG
1995, 1998–2001 SL 73 AMG
1996–1998 SL 60 AMG
1995–1997 C 36 AMG
1997–2000 C 43 AMG
1996–1998 E 36 AMG
1996–1997 E 50 AMG
1998–2002 E 55 AMG
1998–2002 CLK-GTR AMG
2001–2004 SLK 32 AMG
2002–2004 C 32 AMG
2005–2006 C 55 AMG
2005–2006 CLK DTM AMG
2007 R 63 AMG
2009 CLK 63 AMG and CLK 63 AMG Black Series
"55" M152 5.5 L V8
AMG SLK 55
The M152 is a naturally aspirated, detuned version of the M157 Biturbo V8. This V8 will be used for the 2012 SLK 55 AMG, and it produces 415 hp and 398 lb-ft. This engine was discontinued in 2016 with the introduction of the SLC 43 AMG.[43]
"43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo
Mercedes-AMG E 43
Mercedes-AMG GLE 43
Mercedes-AMG C 43 4MATIC+
Mercedes-AMG GLC 43 4MATIC+
Mercedes-AMG C 43
Mercedes-AMG SLC 43
"45" M133 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo
Mercedes-AMG GLA 45
Mercedes-AMG A 45
The 2.0 L Turbo I4 was created for use in the smaller, 45 AMG models, such as the A-Class, CLA-Class, and GLA-Class, which all share the same platform. The M133 (2015 onwards) produces 381 PS (375 HP) and 350 lb-ft (475 Nm),[44] making it the most powerful turbo 4-cylinder in production, and with a 190.5-horsepower per liter, one of the most power dense engines in production.[45] Models with the M133 Turbo 4 are paired with a 7-speed AMG SPEEDSHIFT Dual-Clutch Transmission. The CLA45 AMG can accelerate from 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 4.2 seconds, according to Motor Trend's first test of the vehicle.[46]
"30" 3.0 L I5 diesel
OM612 3.0 L "30" I5 Diesel models
C 30 CDI AMG (sedan, wagon, and Sportcoupé)
"32" 3.2 L V6 KOMPRESSOR
2003 UK version of C 32 Estate (S203) in Brilliant Silver.
Powertrain consists of AMG Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission mated to an AMG 3.2-litre V6 Kompressor engine with an output of 260 kW/349 hp and 332 lb⋅ft (450 N⋅m) at 4,400 rpm. The engine is a special version of the 3.2 L (3199 cc) M112 E32, fitted with a helical twin-screw supercharger and water-to-air intercooler. The supercharger was developed in conjunction with IHI and features Teflon-coated rotors producing overall boost of 14.5 psi (1 bar). Compared to the standard M112 engine, the AMG version also has a new crankshaft, new connecting rods and pistons, an oil pump with a 70-percent increased capacity, lightweight camshafts, and harder valve springs for a redline of 6200 rpm, an increase of 200 rpm.[47]
While rival BMW M developed the SMG-II automated manual for the BMW M3, the C 32 and SLK 32 have a 5-speed automatic transmission's "Speedshift" system, which now has quicker response (up to 35 percent) to accelerator and shift selector movements.[48]
The C 32 had a smaller engine than its predecessors, the C 36 AMG with the M104 3.6L I6 engine, and the C 43 AMG powered by the M113 4.3L V8 engine. The C 32 AMG can do 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 5.2sec 0–100 in 12.6 with a 1/4 mile of 13.6 at 106 mph (C&D comparison test May 2003).[49][50]
3.2 L Supercharged M112 V6 AMG
2002–2004 C 32 AMG (sedan, wagon (S203), and Sportcoupé)
2001–2004 SLK 32 AMG
2005–2006 Chrysler Crossfire SRT-6
"55" 5.4 L V8 KOMPRESSOR
2004 AMG CL 55 Kompressor.
This model was nicknamed the "Hammer" after the original 1986 AMG Hammer (a W124 E-Class sedan with an AMG-tuned 360 hp 5.6-litre V8). The 2003 E 55 AMG could do 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 4.4 seconds.
The main engine is a 5.4 L V8 engine This engine comes in two configurations.
The first configuration is a naturally aspirated V8 with 354 PS (260 kW; 349 hp) that is used in the C 55 AMG, CLK 55 AMG, E 55 AMG (1999-2002), SLK 55 AMG, and ML 55 AMG. The C 43 AMG (model years 1998–2000) was powered by a naturally aspirated V8 engine from the M113 family, but at a reduced displacement of 4.3L, hence the '43' designation.
The other configuration is a similar unit but with a highly efficient Lysholm type twin screw supercharger. manufactured by Eaton, is in the rest of the AMG 55 models, which are typically midsized or larger vehicles. The published output according to Mercedes varies from 476 PS (350 kW; 469 hp) to 517 PS (380 kW; 510 hp) and 700 N⋅m (520 lb⋅ft) to 720 N⋅m (530 lb⋅ft), depending on various methods of power measurements and different ECU programming for national legislations. For instance, the E 55 AMG's engine was at the low end, nonetheless it was still Mercedes-Benz's fastest sedan at the time,[51] while the SL55 AMG's engine had the top output.[52][53] Mercedes has claimed that a more restrictive exhaust system was responsible for cutting output on the E 55 AMG, however some enthusiasts have managed to bump up horsepower to 505 on the E 55 by incorporating some parts from the SL 55.[54]
The supercharged 5.4 L 24 valve V8 engine was mated to the Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission, which has a torque capacity of 796 lb⋅ft (1,079 N⋅m), as the newer 7G-Tronic introduced in 2003 is limited to 542 lb⋅ft (735 N⋅m), not enough to handle the torque from the supercharged V8.[25][55]
The V8 S 55 AMG had a comparable output to the V12-powered S600 throughout their production. The S 55 AMG (2001–02) was outfitted with a 5.4 L 354 hp (264 kW) V8 motor while the later versions (2003–06) sported the same motor, but supercharged to a rated 493 hp (368 kW). The S600 (2001–02) was outfitted with a 5.8L 362 hp (270 kW) V12 engine while the later versions (2003–06) sported a twin-turbocharged (or Bi-Turbo) 493 hp (368 kW) 5.5L V12. The justification for having two models with the same power is that the S 55 AMG is sportier and more responsive, while the costlier S600 is more luxurious with a smoother ride.
AMG phased out both the naturally aspirated and supercharged 5.4 L engines in favor of the new M156 V8 beginning in 2006, which was paired with 7G-Tronic. However, some enthusiasts were disappointed because the M156 produces less torque than the M113K (which is supercharged).
For the Model Year 2009:
M113 5.4 L "55" V8 models (naturally aspirated)
SLK 55 AMG
M113 5.4 L "55" V8 models (supercharged)
G 55 AMG
Previous 55 AMG models
1999–2002 E 55 AMG
2003–2006 E 55 AMG
2000–2003 ML 55 AMG
2003–2005 C 55 AMG
2001–2002 CLK 55 AMG
2003–2006 CLK 55 AMG
2004–2007 CLS 55 AMG
2001–2008 SL 55 AMG
2001–2006 S 55 AMG
2001–2006 CL 55 AMG
2005–2006 C 55 AMG
2001–2009 G 55 AMG
"63" M137 6.3 L V12
The "63" badging was used on the short-lived 2001 S 63 AMG, 2001 CL 63 AMG and 2002 G 63 AMG. These were produced in limited quantities for one month and only offered through AMG to select customers in Europe and Asia, purportedly state leaders. The CL 63 AMG was the rarest C215 CL of all, and just 26 examples were built in November 2001 (51 plate), with some UK being and one for France registered in March 2002. These had a base price of £110,000 (~US$200,000).[56][57][58] The G 63 AMG was the rarest W463 of all with just 5 examples built in September 2002 and sold in Germany at over €250,000 each.
These are powered by a naturally aspirated 6.3L V12 producing 326 kW (443 PS; 437 hp). This engine is based on the M137 5.8L V12 used in the S 600 and CL 600, but the AMG variants have a larger displacement, a new management system, a new crank case and cooling system, weight-optimized pistons, and a new camshaft with greater valve lift and modified valves. 390 lb⋅ft (530 N⋅m) of torque are available between 2500–5800rpm with a peak of 620 N⋅m (457 lb⋅ft) at 4400 rpm while horsepower grows by almost 80 over the 5.8L V12. It is mated to a 5-speed automatic transmission. The 2001 S 63 AMG V12 had 100 hp more than the 2001 S 55 AMG, and was a few tenths faster.[56][57]
"60", "73", "70", "55"
The Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R129) had several AMG variants during its production run from 1989 to 2001.
The SL 60 AMG was the most numerous of these rare cars. Sold from 1993 to 1998, it used a 6.0 litre V8 engine producing 381 PS (280 kW; 376 hp) at 5500 rpm.[59] AMG claimed a 0–62 mph (100 km/h) speed of 5.6 seconds. Its top speed was limited to 250 km/h (155 mph), but with the limiter removed, it was capable of approximately 185 mph (298 km/h). AMG later unofficially conceded that 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) was more like 5.0 seconds and the engine produced between 405 and 410 bhp.
Extremely rare was the SL 73 AMG, sold through Mercedes-AMG in 1995, and offering the most powerful V12 engine ever put into an SL up to that time. After a brief hiatus, the SL 73 was offered again from 1998 to 2001. The same 7.3 L V12 was later used by Pagani in the Zonda.
Even rarer is the SL 70 AMG (7.0 L (7055 cc) V12 engine).
The SL 55 AMG was sold in the R129 body style from 1998 to 2001 in limited numbers (5.4L V8, 354 PS (260 kW; 349 hp) at 5500 rpm). It was the predecessor of the production R230 SL 55 AMG sold later, albeit was normally aspirated in the R129 and not supercharged as in its R230 successor.
"63" M156 6.2 L V8
The "63" M156 is currently in production in the C 63 AMG and tuned as the M159 in the SLS AMG, although there were many models that were previously in production.
This naturally aspirated V8 will also be used to replace most of the "55" models. The published output according to Mercedes varies from 457 PS (336 kW; 451 hp) on the C 63 AMG, to 525 PS (386 kW; 518 hp) on the C/CLK/R/ML/GL/S/SL/CL/E 63 AMG.
The 2008 S 63/CL 63/SL 63s that used the M156 engine at 518 horsepower edged out that of the S600/CL600/SL600, the latter powered by the 510 horsepower 5.5-liter twin-turbo V12, while also having a higher redline. However, the S600/CL600/SL600 is more expensive and has more torque at 612 pound-feet (830 N⋅m).[60] The S 63/CL 63/SL 63, however, do have quicker acceleration times than their S600/CL600/SL600 counterparts and are the fastest in the lineup in 2014, due to the added weight and torque of the 65s, thus decreasing the 0-60 times and the handling limits.
Compared to the "55" supercharged 5.4 L V8 engine—which was restricted to the Speedshift 5G-Tronic five-speed automatic transmission, as it had a torque capacity of 796 lb⋅ft (1,079 N⋅m)—the reduced torque of the "63" M156 6.2L V8 means it can be mated with the more efficient 7G-Tronic, which can withstand a limit of 542 lb⋅ft (735 N⋅m). Despite the reduction in torque, the increased horsepower and more efficient transmission enable the 63 models to match or surpass the acceleration of the "55" models.[25] Most of the M156-engined models used the 7G-Tronic automatic transmission, however the more recent 2009 SL 63, 2010 E 63, and 2012 C 63 use the 7-speed MCT transmission.
Previous M156 Models
2007–2010 S 63 AMG
2006–2010 CL 63 AMG[61]
2007–2011 ML 63 AMG
2007 R 63 AMG
2006–2009 CLK 63 AMG[62] (introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show) (used as Safety Car for the 2006 and 2007 F1 World Championship)
2007–2011 CLS 63 AMG (introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show)
2007–2009 E 63 AMG (Sedan and Wagon)
2009–2012 SL 63 AMG
2010–2012 E 63 AMG (Sedan and Wagon)
Black Series
SLK 55 AMG Black Series
CLK 63 AMG Black Series
SL 65 AMG Black Series
C 63 AMG Black Series
SLS AMG Black Series
AMG GT Black Series
The AMG Performance Studio in Affalterbach is responsible for the upgrades that make an AMG into an AMG Black Series model. The Black Series treatment is only available on 2 door vehicles, which includes weight reduction, bucket seats, exterior alterations, interior alterations, higher power, greater traction, handling, and significantly greater overall performance. Black Series models are known as street-legal race cars.
The SLS AMG Black Series was tested by Motor Trend to have a 0-60 time of 3.2 seconds, and a quarter mile time of 11.1 seconds at 129.8 mph. The SLS AMG Black Series "demolished" the Motor Trend figure eight in just 23.1 seconds, beating the McLaren MP4-12C, Ferrari 458 Italia, Audi R8 V10 Plus, and the SRT Viper.[63] The SLS AMG Black Series is currently the 22nd fastest car to lap the Nürburgring.[64] The SLS AMG Black Series had the same 1:19 time as the Lamborghini Murciélago LP670-4 SuperVeloce, the Ferrari Enzo, and beat the Ferrari 458 Italia, Lamborghini Gallardo LP 560-4, Porsche 997 GT2, and Nissan GT-R around the Top Gear test track.[65]
Electric Drive
In 2013, Mercedes-AMG announced the SLS AMG Coupe Electric Drive, which was to be the first zero emissions vehicle from AMG. The vehicle used technology derived from Formula 1, and was the fastest electric car.[22] The SLS AMG Electric Drive has 740 horsepower and 738 lb-ft of torque, and Mercedes-AMG claims a 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 3.9 seconds.[41]
See also
List of German cars
Alpina
Audi Sport GmbH
BMW M
Brabus
Gran Turismo
Opel Performance Center
Mitsubishi Debonair
References
Notes
"AMG – The Company". Mercedes-AMG GmbH. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
"About us". Mercedes-Benz AG. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
"Mercedes-Benz AMG". Retrieved 8 February 2014.
"2002 Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG Road Test". Edmunds. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"Mercedes-AMG Sydney Becomes The World's First Standalone Dealership". DMARGE. 26 January 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
Newhardt, David. "Behind the Scenes: Mercedez-Benz AMG". MotorTrend. Retrieved 22 March 2008.
"Statement of Investments pursuant to Sections 285 and 313 of the German Commercial Code (HGB) for the Company and Consolidated Financial Statements of Daimler AG as of December 31, 2011" (PDF). Daimler AG. 9 February 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
Hall, Jim (October 1983). "Rhapsody in Red: 500SL AMG". Motor Trend.
"Mercedes-AMG: The AMG Story beginning". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"AMG's Hammer". Auto Week. 23 June 1986.
Setright, LJK (December 1986). "Firebrand: AMG Hammer Sedan". Car Magazine. pp. 149–155.
"AMG's new chief has big plans for 2006". AutoWeek Magazine. 20 January 2006. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
Robinson, Peter (June 2001). "2002 Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG and SLK32 AMG - First Drive Review - Page 2". Car and Driver. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"2009 Mercedes-Benz SL-Class". Autoblog.com.
"Michael Doohan debuts in Targa Tasmania". au.motorsport.com. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
"Mercedes adds AMG moniker to Formula 1 team name". Autosport. 5 December 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"Erebus Motorsport on the V8 Supercar Grid in 2013 name". Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2012.
"Aston Martin in technical partnership with Mercedes-AMG GmbH". Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"Mercedes-AMG GmbH and Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd. to enter technical partnership". 25 July 2013. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"Aston Martin signs Letter of Intent for technical partnership with AMG". Autoblog. 25 July 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"Lotus Emira Mid-Engined Sports Car Debuts With AMG And Toyota Power". motor1.com. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
"Mercedes-AMG: A High Performance Driving Experience". Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"Mercedes AMG GT 2015". AskaPrice.com. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
PeterH (4 December 2009). "Mercedes-Benz CL 65 AMG and S 65 AMG | Mercedes". 500sec.com. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"Mercedes-Benz AMG 6.3-liter V8". Insideline.com. 19 July 2005. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"Mercedes' new CL65 AMG will now pack 621 horses - Drive On: A conversation about the cars and trucks we drive". USA Today. 24 July 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"2011 Mercedes CL63 & CL65 AMG revealed". Worldcarfans.com. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"CLS63 4-Door Coupe | Mercedes-Benz". mbusa.com. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
"SL63 AMG Convertible Roadster | Mercedes-Benz". Mercedes-Benza USA. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
"Engines: 5.5L-V8". Mercedes-AMG. 14 October 2009. Archived from the original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"Mercedes AMG New Twin-Turbo 5.5 Litre V8 Engine Revealed". Worldcarfans.com. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"AMG Replacing 6.3 V8 with 5.5L Twin Turbo V8". Carthrottle.com. 1 March 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"2011 Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG - 2010 Geneva Auto Show Coverage, New Car Reviews, Concept Cars". Automobile Magazine. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"2011 Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG". Canada.com. 5 July 2010. Archived from the original on 3 August 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"2012 Mercedes-Benz E63 AMG First Drive". Motor Trend. 8 July 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"First Drive: 2011 Mercedes-Benz S 63 AMG". National Post. Retrieved 28 July 2010.[permanent dead link]
"2015 Mercedes-Benz S65 AMG Photos and Info". Car and Driver. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"Mercedes-Benz SL63 / SL65 AMG Reviews - Mercedes-Benz SL63 / SL65 AMG Price, Photos, and Specs". Car and Driver. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"2014 Mercedes-Benz CLS 63 AMG S Track Sheet" (PDF). Car and Driver. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
"Luxury Super Sports Sedan Comparison - Audi RS7, Mercedes-Benz CLS63 AMG S, Porsche Panamera Turbo". Motor Trend. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
"2014 Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive Photos and Info". Car and Driver. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"2014 Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Black Series Test – Review". Car and Driver. December 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
"Mercedes-Benz details new variable-displacement V8 for SLK55 AMG". Autoblog. 21 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
"All-New 2014 CLA45 AMG 4-Door Coupe". Retrieved 6 November 2014.
"Mercedes A 45 AMG: The most powerful 4-cylinder turbo engine in the world". Car Engineer. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
"2014 Mercedes-Benz CLA45 AMG First Test". Motor Trend. 13 November 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
Robinson, Peter (June 2001). "2002 Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG and SLK32 AMG - First Drive Review - Car Reviews". Car and Driver. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG First Drive – Full Review of the New Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG at". Road and Track. 1 July 2001. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"2003 Audi S4 vs. BMW M3, M-B C32 AMG". Car and Driver. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"C/D Test Results" (PDF). Car and Driver. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
Wolfkill, Kim (January 2003). "First Drives - Mercedes-Benz E55 AMG (1/2003)" (PDF). Road and Track. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
Robinson, Peter (December 2002). "Mercedes-Benz E55 AMG - First Drive Review - Car Reviews". Car and Driver. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"Test Drive: 2004 Mercedes-Benz E55 AMG". Car and Driver. 26 October 2003. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
"2004 Mercedes Benz E55 AMG". Retrieved 6 October 2014.
"Mercedes E55 AMG" (PDF). Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG (W220) - World's Fastest Sedans". FantasyCars.com. 14 December 2006. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"MERCEDES BENZ S 63 AMG (W220) 2001 - 2001". AutoEvolution. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
http://www.supercars.net/garages/marcusmv3/126v2.html[dead link]
Automobil Revue (Catalogue ed.). 1995. p. 380.
"2008 Mercedes-Benz CL63 AMG and S63 AMG - First Drive Review - Auto Reviews". Car and Driver. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
"CL 63 AMG". mercedes-benz-publicarchive.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
"CLK 63 AMG Cabriolet". mercedes-benz-publicarchive.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
"2014 Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Black Series First Test". Motor Trend. 6 August 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"Top 100 Lap Records".
List of Top Gear test track Power Lap Times
Bibliography
Becker, Clauspeter; Bolsinger, Markus; Clauss, Michael (2013). AMG 45: The Story - The Cars. Bielefeld, Germany: Delius Klasing. ISBN 9783768834940.
Bolsinger, Markus (2013). Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG. Bielefeld, Germany: Delius Klasing. ISBN 9783768833707.
Clarke, R.M., ed. (2007). Mercedes AMG Gold Portfolio 1983-1999. Road Test Portfolio Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 978-1-85520-745-5.
Clarke, R.M., ed. (2007). Mercedes AMG Ultimate Portfolio 2000-2006. Road Test Portfolio Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 978-1-85520-748-6.
Mühling, Frank; Bolsinger, Markus (2006). AMG: Reaching for the Stars. Bielefeld, Germany: Delius Klasing. ISBN 3768818098.
Rigatto, Alessandro (2011). Typenkompass Mercedes-AMG Serien- und Rennsportwagen seit 1967 [Typenkompass Mercedes-AMG Production and Racing Cars since 1967]. Typenkompass series; Basiswissen für Auto-Freunde series (in German). Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. ISBN 9783613032736.
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Mercury (element)Mercury (element)
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Mercury, 80Hg
Pouring liquid mercury bionerd.jpg
Mercury
Appearance shiny, silvery liquid
Standard atomic weight Ar, std(Hg) 200.592(3)[1]
Mercury in the periodic table
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
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Chlorine
Argon
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Scandium
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Krypton
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Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon
Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson
Cd
↑
Hg
↓
Cn
gold ← mercury → thallium
Atomic number (Z) 80
Group group 12
Period period 6
Block d-block
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STP liquid
Melting point 234.3210 K (−38.8290 °C, −37.8922 °F)
Boiling point 629.88 K (356.73 °C, 674.11 °F)
Density (near r.t.) 13.534 g/cm3
Triple point 234.3156 K, 1.65×10−7 kPa
Critical point 1750 K, 172.00 MPa
Heat of fusion 2.29 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 59.11 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity 27.983 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 315 350 393 449 523 629
Atomic properties
Oxidation states −2 , +1, +2 (a mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.00
Ionization energies
1st: 1007.1 kJ/mol
2nd: 1810 kJ/mol
3rd: 3300 kJ/mol
Atomic radius empirical: 151 pm
Covalent radius 132±5 pm
Van der Waals radius 155 pm
Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal structure rhombohedralRhombohedral crystal structure for mercury
Speed of sound liquid: 1451.4 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion 60.4 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 8.30 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity 961 nΩ⋅m (at 25 °C)
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[2]
Molar magnetic susceptibility −33.44×10−6 cm3/mol (293 K)[3]
CAS Number 7439-97-6
History
Discovery Ancient Egyptians (before 1500 BCE)
Symbol "Hg": from its Latin name hydrargyrum, itself from Greek hydrárgyros, 'water-silver'
Main isotopes of mercury
Isotope Abundance Half-life (t1/2) Decay mode Product
194Hg syn 444 y ε 194Au
195Hg syn 9.9 h ε 195Au
196Hg 0.15% stable
197Hg syn 64.14 h ε 197Au
198Hg 10.04% stable
199Hg 16.94% stable
200Hg 23.14% stable
201Hg 13.17% stable
202Hg 29.74% stable
203Hg syn 46.612 d β− 203Tl
204Hg 6.82% stable
Category: Mercury (element)
viewtalkedit | references
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum (/haɪˈdrɑːrdʒərəm/ hy-DRAR-jər-əm).[4] A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is the halogen bromine, though metals such as caesium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature.
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide.
Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, mercury switches, mercury relays, fluorescent lamps and other devices, though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favor of alternatives such as alcohol- or galinstan-filled glass thermometers and thermistor- or infrared-based electronic instruments. Likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers.
Mercury remains in use in scientific research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales. It is also used in fluorescent lighting. Electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light, which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light.
Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), by inhalation of mercury vapor, or by ingesting any form of mercury.
Contents
1 Properties
1.1 Physical properties
1.2 Chemical properties
1.3 Isotopes
2 Etymology
3 History
4 Occurrence
5 Chemistry
5.1 Compounds of mercury(I)
5.2 Compounds of mercury(II)
5.3 Organomercury compounds
6 Applications
6.1 Medicine
6.2 Production of chlorine and caustic soda
6.3 Laboratory uses
6.4 Niche uses
6.5 Firearms
6.6 Historic uses
7 Toxicity and safety
7.1 Releases in the environment
7.2 Sediment contamination
7.3 Occupational exposure
7.4 Fish
7.5 Cosmetics
7.6 Effects and symptoms of mercury poisoning
7.7 Treatment
8 Regulations
8.1 International
8.2 United States
8.3 European Union
8.4 Norway
8.5 Sweden
8.6 Denmark
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Properties
Physical properties
A pound coin (density ~7.6 g/cm3) floats on mercury due to the combination of the buoyant force and surface tension.
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity.[5]
It has a freezing point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C,[6][7][8] both the lowest of any stable metal, although preliminary experiments on copernicium and flerovium have indicated that they have even lower boiling points.[9] This effect is due to lanthanide contraction and relativistic contraction reducing the radius of the outermost electrons, and thus weakening the metallic bonding in mercury.[7] Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3.59% and its density changes from 13.69 g/cm3 when liquid to 14.184 g/cm3 when solid. The coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at 0 °C, 181.71 × 10−6 at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6 at 100 °C (per °C). Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife.[10]
Chemical properties
Mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, although oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride. Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury (spill kits also use activated carbon and powdered zinc).[11]
Amalgams
Mercury-discharge spectral calibration lamp
Mercury dissolves many metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally been used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese, copper and zinc are also resistant in forming amalgams. Other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum.[12][13] Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps.
Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth (as in iron rusting), even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.[14]
Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement.
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of mercury
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury, with 202
Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are 194
Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203
Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199
Hg and 201
Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 1⁄2 and 3⁄2 respectively.[5]
Etymology
The symbol for the planet Mercury (☿) has been used since ancient times to represent the element
"Hg" is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It is an abbreviation of hydrargyrum, a romanized form of the ancient Greek word ὑδράργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound meaning "water-silver" (from ὑδρ- (hydr-), the root of ὕδωρ 'water', and ἄργυρος (argyros) 'silver'). Like English quicksilver ("live-silver"), it was named this because it was both liquid and shiny. The chemical name comes from the planet Mercury. In alchemy, the seven metals known before the 16th century were associated with the seven planets, and quicksilver was associated with the fastest planet, which had been named after the Roman god Mercury, who was associated with speed and mobility. The astrological symbol for the planet became one of the alchemical symbols for the metal, and "Mercury" became an alternative name for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name survives, as it was decided it was preferable to "quicksilver" as a chemical name.[15][16]
History
Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC.[17]
In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health, although it is now known that exposure to mercury vapor leads to serious adverse health effects.[18] The first emperor of a unified China, Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì—allegedly buried in a tomb that contained rivers of flowing mercury on a model of the land he ruled, representative of the rivers of China—was reportedly killed by drinking a mercury and powdered jade mixture formulated by Qin alchemists intended as an elixir of immortality.[19][20] Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, the second Tulunid ruler of Egypt (r. 884–896), known for his extravagance and profligacy, reportedly built a basin filled with mercury, on which he would lie on top of air-filled cushions and be rocked to sleep.[21]
In November 2014 "large quantities" of mercury were discovered in a chamber 60 feet below the 1800-year-old pyramid known as the "Temple of the Feathered Serpent," "the third largest pyramid of Teotihuacan," Mexico along with "jade statues, jaguar remains, a box filled with carved shells and rubber balls."[22]
The ancient Greeks used cinnabar (mercury sulfide) in ointments; the ancient Egyptians and the Romans used it in cosmetics. In Lamanai, once a major city of the Maya civilization, a pool of mercury was found under a marker in a Mesoamerican ballcourt.[23][24] By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams (Medieval Latin amalgama, "alloy of mercury") with other metals.[25]
Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The purest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists.[15]
The mines in Almadén (Spain), Monte Amiata (Italy), and Idrija (now Slovenia) dominated mercury production from the opening of the mine in Almadén 2500 years ago, until new deposits were found at the end of the 19th century.[26]
Occurrence
See also: Category:Mercury minerals and Category:Mercury mines
Mercury is an extremely rare element in Earth's crust, having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08 parts per million (ppm).[27] Because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance). It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in cinnabar, metacinnabar, sphalerite, corderoite, livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore.[28][29] Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where rocks of high density are forced to the crust of Earth,[citation needed] often in hot springs or other volcanic regions.[30]
Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio process to extract silver from ore using mercury, mercury became an essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American colonies. Mercury was used to extract silver from the lucrative mines in New Spain and Peru. Initially, the Spanish Crown's mines in Almadén in Southern Spain supplied all the mercury for the colonies.[31] Mercury deposits were discovered in the New World, and more than 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of Huancavelica, Peru, over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563. The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury to treat silver ores until the late 19th century.[32]
Native mercury with cinnabar, Socrates mine, Sonoma County, California. Cinnabar sometimes alters to native mercury in the oxidized zone of mercury deposits.
Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico, which once produced a large proportion of the world supply, have now been completely mined out or, in the case of Slovenia (Idrija) and Spain (Almadén), shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury. Nevada's McDermitt Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed in 1992. The price of mercury has been highly volatile over the years and in 2006 was $650 per 76-pound (34.46 kg) flask.[33]
Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The equation for this extraction is
HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2
In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with almost two-thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan.[34]: 47 Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents.
Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning.[35] In China, prison labor was used by a private mining company as recently as the 1950s to develop new cinnabar mines. Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo Xi mining company to establish new tunnels.[36] Worker health in functioning mines is at high risk.
A newspaper claimed that an unidentified European Union directive calling for energy-efficient lightbulbs to be made mandatory by 2012 encouraged China to re-open cinnabar mines to obtain the mercury required for CFL bulb manufacture. Environmental dangers have been a concern, particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and Guangzhou, and in Guizhou province in the southwest.[36]
Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain very hazardous waste piles of roasted cinnabar calcines. Water run-off from such sites is a recognized source of ecological damage. Former mercury mines may be suited for constructive re-use. For example, in 1976 Santa Clara County, California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site, after conducting extensive safety and environmental analysis of the property.[37]
Chemistry
See also: Category:Mercury compounds
Mercury exists in two oxidation states, I and II. Despite claims otherwise,[38] Hg(III) and Hg(IV) compounds remain unknown,[39][40] though short-lived Hg(III) has been achieved through electrochemical oxidation.[41]
Compounds of mercury(I)
Unlike its lighter neighbors, cadmium and zinc, mercury usually forms simple stable compounds with metal-metal bonds. Most mercury(I) compounds are diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation, Hg2+
2. Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate. Treatment of Hg(I) compounds complexation with strong ligands such as sulfide, cyanide, etc. induces disproportionation to Hg2+
and elemental mercury.[42] Mercury(I) chloride, a colorless solid also known as calomel, is really the compound with the formula Hg2Cl2, with the connectivity Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl. It is a standard in electrochemistry. It reacts with chlorine to give mercuric chloride, which resists further oxidation. Mercury(I) hydride, a colorless gas, has the formula HgH, containing no Hg-Hg bond.
Indicative of its tendency to bond to itself, mercury forms mercury polycations, which consist of linear chains of mercury centers, capped with a positive charge. One example is Hg2+
3(AsF−
6)
2.[43]
Compounds of mercury(II)
Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and is the main one in nature as well. All four mercuric halides are known. They form tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides adopt linear coordination geometry, somewhat like Ag+ does. Best known is mercury(II) chloride, an easily sublimating white solid. HgCl2 forms coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral, e.g. HgCl2−
4.
Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury, arises when the metal is exposed to air for long periods at elevated temperatures. It reverts to the elements upon heating near 400 °C, as was demonstrated by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen.[11] Hydroxides of mercury are poorly characterized, as they are for its neighbors gold and silver.
Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment vermillion. Like ZnS, HgS crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the black zinc blende form.[5] The latter sometimes occurs naturally as metacinnabar.[29] Mercury(II) selenide (HgSe) and mercury(II) telluride (HgTe) are also known, these as well as various derivatives, e.g. mercury cadmium telluride and mercury zinc telluride being semiconductors useful as infrared detector materials.[44]
Mercury(II) salts form a variety of complex derivatives with ammonia. These include Millon's base (Hg2N+), the one-dimensional polymer (salts of HgNH+
2)
n), and "fusible white precipitate" or [Hg(NH3)2]Cl2. Known as Nessler's reagent, potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (HgI2−
4) is still occasionally used to test for ammonia owing to its tendency to form the deeply colored iodide salt of Millon's base.
Mercury fulminate is a detonator widely used in explosives.[5]
Organomercury compounds
Main article: Organomercury compound
Organic mercury compounds are historically important but are of little industrial value in the western world. Mercury(II) salts are a rare example of simple metal complexes that react directly with aromatic rings. Organomercury compounds are always divalent and usually two-coordinate and linear geometry. Unlike organocadmium and organozinc compounds, organomercury compounds do not react with water. They usually have the formula HgR2, which are often volatile, or HgRX, which are often solids, where R is aryl or alkyl and X is usually halide or acetate. Methylmercury, a generic term for compounds with the formula CH3HgX, is a dangerous family of compounds that are often found in polluted water.[45] They arise by a process known as biomethylation.
Applications
The bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some liquid-in-glass thermometers, especially those used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly being phased out due to health and safety regulations. In some applications, mercury is replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.[46]
Medicine
See also: Amalgam (dentistry)
Amalgam filling
Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood. An example of the early therapeutic application of mercury of was published in 1787 by James Lind.[47]
The first edition of the Merck's Manual (1899) featured many mercuric compounds[48] such as:
Mercauro
Mercuro-iodo-hemol.
Mercury-ammonium chloride
Mercury Benzoate
Mercuric
Mercury Bichloride (Corrosive Mercuric Chloride, U.S.P.)
Mercury Chloride
Mild Mercury Cyanide
Mercury Succinimide
Mercury Iodide
Red Mercury Biniodide
Mercury Iodide
Yellow Mercury Proto-iodide
Black (Hahnemann), Soluble Mercury Oxide
Red Mercury Oxide
Yellow Mercury Oxide
Mercury Salicylate
Mercury Succinimide
Mercury Imido-succinate
Mercury Sulphate
Basic Mercury Subsulphate; Turpeth Mineral
Mercury Tannate
Mercury-Ammonium Chloride
Mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams. Thiomersal (called Thimerosal in the United States) is an organic compound used as a preservative in vaccines, though this use is in decline.[49] Thiomersal is metabolized to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated that this mercury-based preservative could cause or trigger autism in children, scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.[50] Nevertheless, thiomersal has been removed from, or reduced to trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine.[51]
Another mercury compound, merbromin (Mercurochrome), is a topical antiseptic used for minor cuts and scrapes that is still in use in some countries.
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, is used in various traditional medicines, especially in traditional Chinese medicine. Review of its safety has found that cinnabar can lead to significant mercury intoxication when heated, consumed in overdose, or taken long term, and can have adverse effects at therapeutic doses, though effects from therapeutic doses are typically reversible. Although this form of mercury appears to be less toxic than other forms, its use in traditional Chinese medicine has not yet been justified, as the therapeutic basis for the use of cinnabar is not clear.[52]
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed countries. Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been banned in some countries, states and medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of non-prescription mercury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices.[53] Mercury compounds are found in some over-the-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drops, and nasal sprays. The FDA has "inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness" of the mercury ingredients in these products.[54] Mercury is still used in some diuretics although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.
Production of chlorine and caustic soda
Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of mercury[55][56] in the late 20th century was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium hydroxide.[57] Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 20th century came from this process, although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard.[56] After about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine.
Laboratory uses
Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperatures, are filled with mercury; they are gradually disappearing. In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been banned since 2003.[58]
Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a flat and absolutely horizontal mirror, useful in determining an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference. Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors may be formed by rotating liquid mercury on a disk, the parabolic form of the liquid thus formed reflecting and focusing incident light. Such liquid-mirror telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100, but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points straight up.[59][60][61]
Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary reference electrode (called the calomel electrode) in electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The calomel electrode is used to work out the electrode potential of half cells.[62] Last, but not least, the triple point of mercury, −38.8344 °C, is a fixed point used as a temperature standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90).[5]
In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode[63] and the hanging mercury drop electrode[64] use elemental mercury. This use allows a new uncontaminated electrode to be available for each measurement or each new experiment.
Mercury-containing compounds are also of use in the field of structural biology. Mercuric compounds such as mercury(II) chloride or potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) can be added to protein crystals in an effort to create heavy atom derivatives that can be used to solve the phase problem in X-ray crystallography via isomorphous replacement or anomalous scattering methods.
Niche uses
Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and some "neon sign" type advertising signs and fluorescent lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose; reflecting a fluorescent ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice.[65] Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons, and mercury arc rectifiers.[66] It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and disinfection.[67] Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon-filled lamp without mercury will have dull spots and will fail to light correctly. Lighting containing mercury can be bombarded/oven pumped only once. When added to neon filled tubes the light produced will be inconsistent red/blue spots until the initial burning-in process is completed; eventually it will light a consistent dull off-blue color.[68]
The deep violet glow of a mercury vapor discharge in a germicidal lamp, whose spectrum is rich in invisible ultraviolet radiation.
Skin tanner containing a low-pressure mercury vapor lamp and two infrared lamps, which act both as light source and electrical ballast
Assorted types of fluorescent lamps.
The miniaturized Deep Space Atomic Clock is a linear ion-trap-based mercury ion clock, designed for precise and real-time radio navigation in deep space.
The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) under development by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory utilises mercury in a linear ion-trap-based clock. The novel use of mercury allows very compact atomic clocks, with low energy requirements, and is therefore ideal for space probes and Mars missions.[69]
Cosmetics
Mercury, as thiomersal, is widely used in the manufacture of mascara. In 2008, Minnesota became the first state in the United States to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics, giving it a tougher standard than the federal government.[70]
A study in geometric mean urine mercury concentration identified a previously unrecognized source of exposure (skin care products) to inorganic mercury among New York City residents. Population-based biomonitoring also showed that mercury concentration levels are higher in consumers of seafood and fish meals.[71]
Firearms
Mercury(II) fulminate is a primary explosive which is mainly used as a primer of a cartridge in firearms.
Historic uses
A single-pole, single-throw (SPST) mercury switch
Mercury manometer to measure pressure
Many historic applications made use of the peculiar physical properties of mercury, especially as a dense liquid and a liquid metal:
Quantities of liquid mercury ranging from 90 to 600 grams (3.2 to 21.2 oz) have been recovered from elite Maya tombs (100–700 AD)[22] or ritual caches at six sites. This mercury may have been used in bowls as mirrors for divinatory purposes. Five of these date to the Classic Period of Maya civilization (c. 250–900) but one example predated this.[72]
In Islamic Spain, it was used for filling decorative pools. Later, the American artist Alexander Calder built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. The fountain is now on display at the Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona.[73]
Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy, liquid form made it useful since the lures made an attractive irregular movement when the mercury moved inside the plug. Such use was stopped due to environmental concerns, but illegal preparation of modern fishing plugs has occurred.
The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to float and rotate in a bath of mercury which acted like a bearing.[74]
Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meter), barometers, diffusion pumps, coulometers, and many other laboratory instruments took advantage of mercury's properties as a very dense, opaque liquid with a nearly linear thermal expansion.[75]
As an electrically conductive liquid, it was used in mercury switches (including home mercury light switches installed prior to 1970), tilt switches used in old fire detectors, and tilt switches in some home thermostats.[76]
Owing to its acoustic properties, mercury was used as the propagation medium in delay-line memory devices used in early digital computers of the mid-20th century.
Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed to increase the efficiency of fossil-fuel electrical power plants.[77] The South Meadow power plant in Hartford, CT employed mercury as its working fluid, in a binary configuration with a secondary water circuit, for a number of years starting in the late 1920s in a drive to improve plant efficiency. Several other plants were built, including the Schiller Station in Portsmouth, NH, which went online in 1950. The idea did not catch on industry-wide due to the weight and toxicity of mercury, as well as the advent of supercritical steam plants in later years.[78][79]
Similarly, liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium is proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury requires much more energy to circulate as coolant.[80]
Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in electric space propulsion systems. Advantages were mercury's high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low dual-ionization energy, high liquid density and liquid storability at room temperature. Disadvantages were concerns regarding environmental impact associated with ground testing and concerns about eventual cooling and condensation of some of the propellant on the spacecraft in long-duration operations. The first spaceflight to use electric propulsion was a mercury-fueled ion thruster developed at NASA Glenn Research Center and flown on the Space Electric Rocket Test "SERT-1" spacecraft launched by NASA at its Wallops Flight Facility in 1964. The SERT-1 flight was followed up by the SERT-2 flight in 1970. Mercury and caesium were preferred propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Laboratory performed studies finding xenon gas to be a suitable replacement. Xenon is now the preferred propellant for ion engines as it has a high molecular weight, little or no reactivity due to its noble gas nature, and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage.[81][82]
Other applications made use of the chemical properties of mercury:
The mercury battery is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery, a primary cell, that was common in the middle of the 20th century. It was used in a wide variety of applications and was available in various sizes, particularly button sizes. Its constant voltage output and long shelf life gave it a niche use for camera light meters and hearing aids. The mercury cell was effectively banned in most countries in the 1990s due to concerns about the mercury contaminating landfills.[83]
Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints (discontinued in 1990), herbicides (discontinued in 1995), interior latex paint, handheld maze games, cleaning, and road leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been used in antiseptics, laxatives, antidepressants, and in antisyphilitics.
It was allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage Luftwaffe planes: a mercury paste was applied to bare aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly corrode; this would cause structural failures.[84]
Chloralkali process: The largest industrial use of mercury during the 20th century was in electrolysis for separating chlorine and sodium from brine; mercury being the anode of the Castner-Kellner process. The chlorine was used for bleaching paper (hence the location of many of these plants near paper mills) while the sodium was used to make sodium hydroxide for soaps and other cleaning products. This usage has largely been discontinued, replaced with other technologies that utilize membrane cells.[85]
As electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells), sodium hydroxide and chlorine production, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides.
Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore cleaner.[86][87]
From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making of felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution (the term "carroting" arose from this color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO3)2·2H2O.[88] This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic. The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter". Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was a play on words based on the older phrase, but the character himself does not exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning.[89]
Gold and silver mining. Historically, mercury was used extensively in hydraulic gold mining in order to help the gold to sink through the flowing water-gravel mixture. Thin gold particles may form mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the gold recovery rates.[5] Large-scale use of mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in small scale, often clandestine, gold prospecting. It is estimated that 45,000 metric tons of mercury used in California for placer mining have not been recovered.[90] Mercury was also used in silver mining.[91]
Historic medicinal uses
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has been used in traditional medicine as a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.[92] It is also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 19th century for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches.[93] In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants. The mercury-containing organohalide merbromin (sometimes sold as Mercurochrome) is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such as the U.S.[94]
Toxicity and safety
See also: Mercury poisoning and Mercury cycle
Mercury
Hazards
GHS labelling:
Pictograms GHS06: ToxicGHS08: Health hazardGHS09: Environmental hazard
Signal word Danger
Hazard statements H330, H360D, H372, H410
Precautionary statements P201, P233, P260, P273, P280, P304, P308, P310, P313, P340, P391, P403[95]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamond
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Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and must be handled with care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs), specific cleaning procedures are used to avoid exposure and contain the spill.[96] Protocols call for physically merging smaller droplets on hard surfaces, combining them into a single larger pool for easier removal with an eyedropper, or for gently pushing the spill into a disposable container. Vacuum cleaners and brooms cause greater dispersal of the mercury and should not be used. Afterwards, fine sulfur, zinc, or some other powder that readily forms an amalgam (alloy) with mercury at ordinary temperatures is sprinkled over the area before itself being collected and properly disposed of. Cleaning porous surfaces and clothing is not effective at removing all traces of mercury and it is therefore advised to discard these kinds of items should they be exposed to a mercury spill.
Mercury can be absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes and mercury vapors can be inhaled, so containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercury, or of compounds of mercury that may decompose when heated, should be carried out with adequate ventilation in order to minimize exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury are its organic compounds, such as dimethylmercury and methylmercury. Mercury can cause both chronic and acute poisoning.
Releases in the environment
Amount of atmospheric mercury deposited at Wyoming's Upper Fremont Glacier over the last 270 years
Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be about 4 ng /(1 L of ice deposit). Although that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have significant effects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by 4–6 times.[97]
Natural sources, such as volcanoes, are responsible for approximately half of atmospheric mercury emissions. The human-generated half can be divided into the following estimated percentages:[98][99][100]
65% from stationary combustion, of which coal-fired power plants are the largest aggregate source (40% of U.S. mercury emissions in 1999). This includes power plants fueled with gas where the mercury has not been removed. Emissions from coal combustion are between one and two orders of magnitude higher than emissions from oil combustion, depending on the country.[98]
11% from gold production. The three largest point sources for mercury emissions in the U.S. are the three largest gold mines. Hydrogeochemical release of mercury from gold-mine tailings has been accounted as a significant source of atmospheric mercury in eastern Canada.[101]
6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically smelters.
6.4% from cement production.
3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous waste, crematoria, and sewage sludge incineration.
3.0% from caustic soda production.
1.4% from pig iron and steel production.
1.1% from mercury production, mainly for batteries.
2.0% from other sources.
The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused mercury emissions in 2000, excluding biomass burning, an important source in some regions.[98]
Recent atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor urban air was measured at 0.01–0.02 µg/m3. A 2001 study measured mercury levels in 12 indoor sites chosen to represent a cross-section of building types, locations and ages in the New York area. This study found mercury concentrations significantly elevated over outdoor concentrations, at a range of 0.0065 – 0.523 μg/m3. The average was 0.069 μg/m3.[102]
Artificial lakes, or reservoirs, may be contaminated with mercury due to the absorption by the water of mercury from submerged trees and soil. For example, Williston Lake in northern British Columbia, created by the damming of the Peace River in 1968, is still sufficiently contaminated with mercury that it is inadvisable to consume fish from the lake.[103][104] Permafrost soils have accumulated mercury through atmospheric deposition,[105] and permafrost thaw in cryospheric regions is also a mechanism of mercury release into lakes, rivers, and wetlands.[106][107]
Mercury also enters into the environment through the improper disposal (e.g., land filling, incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts, batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.[108] Due to health concerns (see below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating mercury in such products. For example, the amount of mercury sold in thermostats in the United States decreased from 14.5 tons in 2004 to 3.9 tons in 2007.[109]
Most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead of mercury. Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used in the medical field because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are commonly being replaced by electronic thermometers and less commonly by galinstan thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for certain scientific applications because of their greater accuracy and working range.
Historically, one of the largest releases was from the Colex plant, a lithium isotope separation plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plant operated in the 1950s and 1960s. Records are incomplete and unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million pounds of mercury are unaccounted for.[110]
A serious industrial disaster was the dumping of mercury compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.[111][112]
The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals such as mercury from the surrounding soil into its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during tobacco smoking.[113] While mercury is a constituent of tobacco smoke,[114] studies have largely failed to discover a significant correlation between smoking and Hg uptake by humans compared to sources such as occupational exposure, fish consumption, and amalgam tooth fillings.[115]
Sediment contamination
Sediments within large urban-industrial estuaries act as an important sink for point source and diffuse mercury pollution within catchments.[116] A 2015 study of foreshore sediments from the Thames estuary measured total mercury at 0.01 to 12.07 mg/kg with mean of 2.10 mg/kg and median of 0.85 mg/kg (n=351).[116] The highest mercury concentrations were shown to occur in and around the city of London in association with fine grain muds and high total organic carbon content.[116] The strong affinity of mercury for carbon rich sediments has also been observed in salt marsh sediments of the River Mersey mean of 2 mg/kg up to 5 mg/kg.[117] These concentrations are far higher than those shown in salt marsh river creek sediments of New Jersey and mangroves of Southern China which exhibit low mercury concentrations of about 0.2 mg/kg.[118][119]
Occupational exposure
EPA workers clean up residential mercury spill in 2004
Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in the U.S. primarily by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Fish
Main article: Mercury in fish
Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Species of fish that are high on the food chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, bluefin tuna, albacore tuna, and tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others. Because mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate in the viscera, although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue.[120] Mercury presence in fish muscles can be studied using non-lethal muscle biopsies.[121] Mercury present in prey fish accumulates in the predator that consumes them. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, methylmercury concentrations in the fish tissue increase over time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease.
Cosmetics
Some facial creams contain dangerous levels of mercury. Most contain comparatively non-toxic inorganic mercury, but products containing highly toxic organic mercury have been encountered.[122][123]
Effects and symptoms of mercury poisoning
Main article: Mercury poisoning
Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidneys and lungs. Mercury poisoning can result in several diseases, including acrodynia (pink disease), Hunter-Russell syndrome, and Minamata disease.
Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a lack of coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend upon the individual toxin, the dose, and the method and duration of exposure. Case–control studies have shown effects such as tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury vapor even at low concentrations in the range 0.7–42 μg/m3.[124][125] A study has shown that acute exposure (4–8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44 mg/m3 resulted in chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial pneumonitis.[126] Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central nervous system effects, including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability, excessive shyness, and insomnia. With continuing exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss of memory, vivid dreams and depression.[127][128]
Treatment
Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D, L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated with DMSA and NAP.[129] Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP.[130]
Regulations
International
140 countries agreed in the Minamata Convention on Mercury by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to prevent emissions.[131] The convention was signed on 10 October 2013.[132]
United States
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and managing mercury contamination. Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act. Additionally, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act, passed in 1996, phases out the use of mercury in batteries, and provides for the efficient and cost-effective disposal of many types of used batteries.[133] North America contributed approximately 11% of the total global anthropogenic mercury emissions in 1995.[134]
The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, industries that release high concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). In March 2005, the EPA promulgated a regulation[135] that added power plants to the list of sources that should be controlled and instituted a national cap and trade system. States were given until November 2006 to impose stricter controls, but after a legal challenge from several states, the regulations were struck down by a federal appeals court on 8 February 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living near coal-fired power plants, given the negative effects documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998.[136] However newer data published in 2015 showed that after introduction of the stricter controls mercury declined sharply, indicating that the Clean Air Act had its intended impact.[137]
The EPA announced new rules for coal-fired power plants on 22 December 2011.[138] Cement kilns that burn hazardous waste are held to a looser standard than are standard hazardous waste incinerators in the United States, and as a result are a disproportionate source of mercury pollution.[139]
European Union
In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury from certain electrical and electronic products, and limits the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000 ppm.[140] There are restrictions for mercury concentration in packaging (the limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium) and batteries (the limit is 5 ppm).[141] In July 2007, the European Union also banned mercury in non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers and barometers. The ban applies to new devices only, and contains exemptions for the health care sector and a two-year grace period for manufacturers of barometers.[142]
Norway
Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import/export of mercury products, effective 1 January 2008.[143] In 2002, several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution, with an excess of 1 µg/g of mercury in their sediment.[144] In 2008, Norway's Minister of Environment Development Erik Solheim said: "Mercury is among the most dangerous environmental toxins. Satisfactory alternatives to Hg in products are available, and it is therefore fitting to induce a ban."[145]
Sweden
Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in 2009.[146][147]
Denmark
In 2008, Denmark also banned dental mercury amalgam,[145] except for molar masticating surface fillings in permanent (adult) teeth.
See also
Mercury pollution in the ocean
Red mercury
COLEX process (isotopic separation)
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St. Pierre, Kyra; Zolkos, Scott; Shakil, Sarah; Tank, Suzanne; St. Louis, Vincent; Kokelj, Steve (2018). "Unprecedented Increases in Total and Methyl Mercury Concentrations Downstream of Retrogressive Thaw Slumps in the Western Canadian Arctic". Environmental Science & Technology. 52 (24): 14099–14109. Bibcode:2018EnST...5214099S. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b05348. PMID 30474969. S2CID 53745081. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
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Further reading
Andrew Scott Johnston, Mercury and the Making of California: Mining, Landscape, and Race, 1840–1890. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2013.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mercury (element).
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mercury (element)
Look up mercury in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Mercury
Mercury at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Mercury Topic
EPA fish consumption guidelines
Hg 80 Mercury
Material Safety Data Sheet – Mercury
Stopping Pollution: Mercury – Oceana
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide – NRDC
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Mercury
BBC – Earth News – Mercury 'turns' wetland birds such as ibises homosexual
Changing Patterns in the Use, Recycling, and Material Substitution of Mercury in the United States United States Geological Survey
Thermodynamical data on liquid mercury.
"Mercury (element)" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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He
2
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B
C
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O
F
Ne
3
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
4
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
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Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
5
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
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Cd
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Te
I
Xe
6
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Ce
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Ta
W
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Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
s-block f-block d-block p-block
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Mercury compounds
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Categories: Mercury (element)Chemical elementsCoolantsEndocrine disruptorsNative element mineralsNeurotoxinsNuclear reactor coolantsOccupational safety and healthTransition metalsChemical elements with rhombohedral structure
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Mercedes-Benz
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This article is about the vehicle manufacturer. For other uses, see Mercedes-Benz (disambiguation).
Mercedes-Benz AG
Mercedes-Benz Logo 2010.svg
Type Subsidiary (AG)[1]
Industry Automotive
Predecessors
Benz & Cie.
(1883–1926)
Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft
(1890–1926)
Mercedes (marque)
(1901–1926)
Founded 28 June 1926; 95 years ago[note 1]
Founders
Karl Benz
Wilhelm Maybach
Gottlieb Daimler
Headquarters Stuttgart, Germany
Area served Worldwide
Key people Ola Källenius, Chairman of the Board of Management[2]
Products
Automobiles
Light commercial vehicles
Production output 2,164,187 cars worldwide (2020) [3]
Brands
Mercedes-Benz EQ
Mercedes-Maybach
Services
Financial services
Automobile repair
Parent Daimler AG[1]
(trucks and buses division are owned by Daimler Truck AG)
Divisions
Mercedes-Benz Cars[4]
Mercedes-Benz Vans
Subsidiaries Mercedes-AMG[5]
Website mercedes-benz.com
mercedes-benz.de
mbusa.com
Mercedes-Benz (German: [mɛɐ̯ˈtseːdəsˌbɛnts, -dɛs-]),[6][7] commonly referred to as just Mercedes, is a German luxury automotive marque. Mercedes-Benz and subsidiary Mercedes-Benz AG – of Daimler AG – are headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.[1] Mercedes-Benz produces consumer luxury vehicles and commercial vehicles.[note 2] Its first Mercedes-Benz-badged vehicles were produced in 1926. In 2018, Mercedes-Benz was the largest seller of premium vehicles in the world, having sold 2.31 million passenger cars.[8]
The company's origins lie in Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft's 1901 Mercedes and Karl Benz's 1886 Benz Patent-Motorwagen, which is widely regarded as the first internal combustion engine in a self-propelled automobile. The slogan for the brand is "the best or nothing".[9]
Contents
1 History
2 Subsidiaries and alliances
2.1 Mercedes-AMG
2.2 Mercedes-Maybach
2.3 China
3 Production
3.1 Factories
3.2 Quality rankings
4 Models
4.1 Current model range
4.1.1 Models
4.1.2 Vans
4.1.3 Trucks
4.1.4 Buses
4.2 Significant models produced
4.3 Car nomenclature
4.3.1 Pre-1994
4.3.2 1994 to 2014
4.3.3 2015 and beyond
4.4 Environmental record
4.5 Electric cars
5 Motorsport
5.1 Formula One
5.2 Formula E
6 Logo history
7 Noted employees
8 Innovations
8.1 Robot cars
9 Tuners
10 Sponsorships
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
13.1 Notes
13.2 Bibliography
14 External links
History
See also: List of companies involved in the Holocaust and Diesel emissions scandal
Karl Benz made the 1886 Benz Patent Motorwagen, which is widely regarded as the first automobile.
Gottlieb Daimler, founder of Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft.
Mercedes-Benz traces its origins to Karl Benz's creation of the first internal combustion engine in a car, seen in the Benz Patent Motorwagen – financed by Bertha Benz's dowry[10] and patented in January 1886[11] – and Gottlieb Daimler and their engineer Wilhelm Maybach's conversion of a stagecoach, with the addition of a petrol engine, introduced later that year. The Mercedes automobile was first marketed in 1901 by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG).
Emil Jellinek, a European automobile entrepreneur who worked with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG), registered the trademark in 1902, naming the 1901 Mercedes 35 hp after his daughter Mercedes Jellinek. Jellinek was a businessman and marketing strategist who promoted "horseless" Daimler automobiles among the highest circles of society in his adopted home. At the time, it was a meeting place for the "Haute Volée" of France and Europe, especially in winter. His customers included the Rothschild family and other well-known people. But Jellinek's plans went further, and in as early as 1901, he was selling Mercedes cars in the "New World" as well, including United States billionaires Rockefeller, Astor, Morgan, and Taylor. At the Nice race he attended in 1899, Jellinek drove under the pseudonym "Monsieur Mercédès" as a way of concealing his less fancy real name. Many consider that race the time of birth for Mercedes-Benz as a brand. Later, in 1901, the name "Mercedes" was re-registered by DMG worldwide as a protected trademark.[12] The first Mercedes-Benz branded vehicles were produced in 1926, following the merger of Karl Benz's and Gottlieb Daimler's companies into the Daimler-Benz company on 28 June of the same year.[11][13]
Gottlieb Daimler was born on 17 March 1834 in Schorndorf. After training as a gunsmith and working in France, he attended the Polytechnic School in Stuttgart from 1857 to 1859. After completing various technical activities in France as well as England, he later started working as a draftsman in Geislingen in 1862. At the end of 1863 he was appointed workshop inspector at a machine tool factory in Reutlingen, where he met Wilhelm Maybach in 1865.[14]
Throughout the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz produced the 770 model, a car that was notably popular throughout the Germany's Nazi period. Adolf Hitler was known to have driven in a model of this car during his time in power, with modified custom bulletproof windshields.[15] Most of the currently surviving 770 models were sold at auctions to private buyers. One of the cars is currently on display at the War Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. The pontiff's Popemobile has often been sourced from Mercedes-Benz.[16]
From 1937 onward, Daimler Benz focused increasingly on military products such as the LG3000 lorry and the DB600 and the DB601 aero engines. To build the latter, in 1936 it built a factory hidden in the forest at Genshagen around 10 kilometres south of Berlin. By 1942 the company had mostly stopped producing cars, and was now devoted to war production. According to its statement, in 1944 almost half of its 63,610 employees were forced labourers, prisoners of war or concentration camp detainees.[17] Another source quotes this figure at 46,000. The company later paid $12 million in reparations to the labourers' families.[18]
In 1958, the two companies began a partnership to sell their cars in the United States with Studebaker. A few American-based Daimler-Benz dealerships were converted into Mercedes-Benz dealerships when Daimler's non-Mercedes-partnered company closed in 1966.
Over the decades, Mercedes-Benz has introduced many electronic and mechanical innovations and safety features that later became common.[19] Currently, Mercedes-Benz is one of the best-known and long-standing automotive brands in the world.
In November 2019, Daimler AG announced that Mercedes-Benz, up until that point a company marque, would be spun off into a separate wholly-owned subsidiary called Mercedes-Benz AG. The new subsidiary would manage the Mercedes-Benz car and van business. Mercedes-Benz-badged trucks and buses would be part of the Daimler Truck AG subsidiary.[1]
For information relating to the three-pointed star symbol of the brand, see under the title Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, including the merger into Daimler-Benz.
Subsidiaries and alliances
As of the Daimler AG company split, the Mercedes-Benz Cars division now handled the Mercedes-Benz car's and the Smart branded car's production.[20]
Mercedes-AMG
Mercedes-AMG became a majority owned division of Mercedes-Benz in 1999.[21] The company was integrated into DaimlerChrysler in 1999,[22] and became Mercedes-Benz AMG on 1 January 1999.[23]
Mercedes-Maybach
Daimler's ultra-luxury Maybach brand was under the Mercedes-Benz Cars division until December 2012, when production was stopped due to decreased sales.[24] It now exists under the Mercedes-Maybach name, with the models being luxury-focused enhanced models of Mercedes-Benz cars, such as the 2016 Mercedes-Maybach S600.[25] The Mercedes-Maybach GLS 600 SUV debuted in November 2019.[26]
China
Daimler partnered with BYD Auto to make and sell a battery-electric car called Denza in China.[27] In 2016, Daimler announced plans to sell Mercedes-Benz-badged fully-electric battery cars in China.[28] Beijing Benz is a joint venture with the BAIC Group to produce the Mercedes-Benz branded cars in China.[29] In 2018, Mercedes-Benz voluntarily apologized for sparking controversy within China by quoting the Dalai Lama on one of their promotional Instagram post.[30]
Production
Factories
Other than in its native birth-place, Germany, Mercedes-Benz vehicles are or have been partly manufactured or assembled in:
Sovereign state Continent Note
Algeria Africa Manufactures buses and trucks in cooperation with SNVI (Actros, Zetros, Unimog, and G-Class, Sprinter).
Argentina South America Manufactures buses, trucks, the Vito and the Sprinter van. This is the first Mercedes-Benz factory outside of Germany. Built in 1951.[31]
Australia Australia Various models were assembled at the Australian Motor Industries facility in Port Melbourne from 1959 to 1965.[32]
Austria Europe G-Class[33]
Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe
Brazil South America Manufactures trucks and buses. Established in 1956. The A-Class (W168) was produced from 1999 to 2005 and the C-Class was produced until 2010 as well.[34]
Canada North America Fuel cell plant in Burnaby, British Columbia, opened 2012.
Colombia South America Assembly of buses, Established in Soacha 2012 and Funza 2015
China Asia Beijing Benz, manufactures A-Class, C-Class, E-Class, GLA-Class, GLB-Class, GLC-Class and EQC-Class for mainland China market.
Denmark Europe Bohnstedt-Petersen A/S assembled the models 130 and W136 between 1935 and 1955, although no production took place during the Second World War. Between 1955 and 1966 the models W120, W121 and W110, together with the van L319 and a number of trucks and buses, were assembled by the company in Hillerød. Assembly of special variants of Mercedes-Benz trucks continued until 1984.[35]
Egypt Africa Via Egyptian German Automotive Company E-Class, C-Class and GLK
Finland Europe Valmet Automotive, New A-series (W176) is manufactured in Uusikaupunki since late 2013, being the first M-B passenger car ever built in that country.
Hungary[36] Europe Manufacturing plant in Kecskemét, making B-class and CLA.
Jordan Asia Bus company factory, Elba House, Amman.
India Asia Pune (C-Class, E-Class, S-Class/Maybach, GLA/GLE Class/AMG).[37] Chennai (Daimler India Commercial Vehicles Pvt. Ltd.) Buses, Trucks & Engine Manufacturing unit, Bangalore (R&D), Jamshedpur with Tata Motors at Tata Motors.[38]
Indonesia[39] Asia Manufactures Axor trucks, coach buses, C, GLC, E, GLE, S, GLS and V vehicles.
Iran[40] Asia
Malaysia Asia Assembly of C, E and S class vehicles by DRB-HICOM.
Mexico North America Mercedes-Benz Mexico fully manufactures some Mercedes and Daimler vehicles completely from locally built parts (C-Class, E-Class, M-Class, International trucks, Axor, Atego, and Mercedes Buses), manufactures other models in complete knock down kits (CL-Class, CLK-Class, SL-Class, SLK-Class) and manufactures a select number of models in semi knockdown kits which use both imported components and locally sourced Mexican components (S-Class, CLS-Class, R-Class, GL-Class, Sprinter).
Nigeria Africa Assembly of buses, trucks, utility motors and the Sprinter van[41]
Russia Eurasia Joint venture Mercedes-Benz Car Trucks Vostok in Naberezhnye Chelny (jointly Kamaz). Available in trucks Actros, Axor, multi-purpose auto four wheel drive medium trucks Unimog. Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Classic is also produced in Russia.
Serbia Europe FAP produces Mercedes-Benz trucks under license.
Spain Europe Factory at Vitoria-Gasteiz Mercedes-Benz Vito, Viano and V-Class have been built there.
South Africa[42] Africa The assembly plant is located in East London, in the Eastern Cape province, where both right and left hand versions of the C-class are built.
South Korea Asia Mercedes-Benz Musso and MB100; Ssangyong Rexton Mercedes-Benz models manufactured by SsangYong Motor Company.
Taiwan Asia Assembly of Actros by the Shung Ye Group[43]
Thailand Asia Completely Knocked Down (CKD) production of A, GLA, C, E, S Classes and Semi-Knocked Down (SKD) production of C-coupe, GLC, GLC-coupe, GLE and CLS.[44] Additionally, local production of Mercedes-AMG such as C43, E53 and CLS53 have been integrated to the existing production lines[45] making it unofficially regarded as the largest Mercedes-Benz factory by number of classes produced under a single roof. The factory is operated by contract manufacture the Thonburi Group under supervision of Mercedes-Benz Manufacturing (Thailand).[46]
Turkey Eurasia Mercedes-Benz Türk A.Ş.[47]
United Kingdom Europe The SLR sports car was built at the McLaren Technology Centre in Woking. Brackley, Northamptonshire, is home to the Mercedes Grand Prix factory, and Brixworth, Northamptonshire is the location of Mercedes-Benz HighPerformanceEngines
United States North America The Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class Sport Utility, the full-sized GL-Class Luxury Sport Utility and the Mercedes-Benz C-Class vehicles are all built at the Mercedes-Benz U.S. International production facility near Tuscaloosa, Alabama.[48] Trucks (6,000 per year in the early eighties) were once assembled in Hampton, Virginia.[49]
Vietnam Asia Assembly of E-Class, C-Class, S-Class, GLK-Class and Sprinter. Established in 1995.[50]
Quality rankings
Mercedes-Benz dealer in Munich, Germany
Mercedes-Benz normally has a strong reputation for quality and durability. Their objective measures looking at passenger vehicles, such as J. D. Power surveys, demonstrated a downturn in reputation in these criteria in the late 1990s and early 2000s. By mid-2005, Mercedes temporarily returned to the industry average for initial quality, a measure of problems after the first 90 days of ownership, according to J. D. Power.[51] In J. D. Power's Initial Quality Study for the first quarter of 2007, Mercedes showed dramatic improvement by climbing from 25th to 5th place and earning several awards for its newer models.[52] For 2008, Mercedes-Benz's initial quality rating improved by yet another mark, to 4th place.[53] On top of this accolade, it also received the Platinum Plant Quality Award for their Mercedes branded Sindelfingen, Germany body assembly plant.[53] J. D. Power's 2011 US Initial Quality and Vehicle Dependability Studies both ranked Mercedes-Benz vehicles above average in build quality and reliability.[54][55] In J. D. Power's United Kingdom Survey in 2011, Mercedes cars were rated above average.[56] Additionally, iSeeCars.com study for Reuters in 2014 found Mercedes to have the lowest vehicle recall rate out of competitors.[57]
Models
See also: List of Mercedes-Benz vehicles
Mercedes-Benz A-Class (Subcompact executive hatchbacks and sedans)
Mercedes-Benz B-Class (Subcompact executive Tourers)
Mercedes-Benz C-Class (Compact executive car)
Mercedes-Benz E-Class (Executive car)
Mercedes-Benz S-Class (full-size luxury sedan)
Mercedes-Benz GLA-Class (Subcompact luxury SUV)
Mercedes-Benz GLC-Class (Compact luxury SUV)
Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class (Mid-size luxury SUV)
Mercedes-Benz GLS-Class (full-size luxury SUV)
Current model range
Mercedes-Benz offers a versatile range of consumer-passenger, light commercial and heavy commercial equipment. These vehicles are manufactured in multiple countries worldwide. The Smart marque of city cars are also produced by Daimler AG.
Models
A-Class – Subcompact luxury Hatchback and Sedan
B-Class – Subcompact luxury Multi Purpose Vehicle
C-Class – Compact executive luxury Sedan/Saloon, Estate, Coupé and Cabriolet
CLA – Subcompact luxury 4-Door Coupé and Estate
CLS – Mid-size luxury 4-Door Coupé
E-Class – Mid-size executive luxury Sedan/Saloon, Estate, Coupé and Cabriolet
G-Class – Luxury off-road vehicle
GLA – Subcompact luxury Crossover
GLB – Compact luxury Crossover
GLC – Compact luxury Sport utility vehicle
GLE – Mid-size luxury Sport utility vehicle
GLS – Full-size luxury Sport utility vehicle
S-Class – Full-Size luxury Sedan/Saloon, Coupé and Cabriolet
V-Class – Luxury Multi Purpose Vehicle
AMG GT – Luxury sports car
AMG GT 4-Door – Luxury sports 4-Door Coupé
AMG SL – Luxury grand tourer roadster
AMG ONE – Super sports car
EQA - Luxury electric Crossover
EQB - Luxury electric Crossover
EQC - Luxury electric Crossover
EQE - Luxury electric Sedan/Saloon
EQS - Luxury electric Sedan/Saloon
EQV - Luxury electric Multi Purpose Vehicle
Vans
Mercedes-Benz Sprinter
Mercedes-Benz currently offers three types of vans; Citan, Vito, and Sprinter. They are all produced by Daimler AG.
Trucks
See also: List of Mercedes-Benz trucks
Mercedes-Benz Zetros used for snowplowing
Unimog, a famous allround vehicle by Mercedes-Benz
Since December 2021, the Mercedes-Benz Trucks division is part of the Daimler Truck company and includes other sub-companies that were part of the DaimlerChrysler merger. Gottlieb Daimler sold the world's first truck in 1886.[58] Their first factory to be built outside Germany after World War II was in Argentina. They originally built trucks, many of which were modified by third parties to be used as buses, popularly named Colectivo.
Buses
Main article: Mercedes-Benz buses
Mercedes-Benz has been producing buses since 1895 in Mannheim, Germany. Since 1995, the brands of Mercedes-Benz's buses and coaches are under the umbrella of EvoBus GmbH, since December 2021 belonging to Daimler Truck AG. EvoBus, through its regional subsidiaries, markets them in European countries, while in other regions of the world marketing and sales duties are passed to regional subsidiaries of Daimler Truck. Mercedes-Benz produces a wide range of buses and coaches, mainly for Europe and Asia. The first model was produced by Karl Benz in 1895.[59]
A STRAN Citaro (second generation) in June 2014
Significant models produced
1928: SSK racing car
1930: 770 "Großer Mercedes" state and ceremonial car
1934: 500 K
1936: 260 D World's first diesel production car
1936: 170
1938: W125 Record-breaking experimental
1939: 320A
1951: 300, known as the "Adenauer Mercedes"
1953: "Ponton" models
1954: 300SL "Gullwing"
1956: 190SL
1959: "Fintail" models
1960: 220SE Cabriolet
1963: 600 "Grand Mercedes"
1963: 230SL "Pagoda"
1965: S-Class
1966: 300SEL 6.3
1968: W114 "new generation" compact cars
1969: C111 experimental vehicle
1972: W107 350SL
1974: 450SEL 6.9
1977: W123- Mercedes' first station wagon
1978: 300SD - Mercedes' first turbo diesel
1979: 500SEL and G-Class
1983: 190E 2.3–16
1989: 300SL, 500SL
1990: 500E
1991: 600SEL
1993: C-Class
1995: C43 AMG
1995: SL73 AMG, 7.3 V12
1996: SLK
1997: A-Class and M-Class
2004: SLR McLaren and CLS-Class
2007: BlueTec E320, GL320 Bluetec, ML320 Bluetec, R320 Bluetec
2010: SLS AMG
2013: CLA-Class
2016: AMG GT
2019: Mercedes-Benz EQ
2021: Mercedes-Benz EQA
2022: Mercedes-Benz EQS
The Mercedes-Benz 600 or 600S Pullman Guard limousines offer the option of armour-plating and have been used by diplomats worldwide.[60]
Car nomenclature
Pre-1994
Until 1994, Mercedes-Benz utilized an alphanumeric system for categorizing their vehicles, consisting of a number sequence approximately equal to the engine's displacement in liters multiplied by 100, followed by an arrangement of alphabetical suffixes, indicating body style and engine type.
"C" indicates a coupe or cabriolet body style (for example, the CL and CLK models, though the C-Class is an exception, since it is also available as a sedan or station wagon).
"D" indicates the vehicle is equipped with a diesel engine.
"E" (for "Einspritzung") indicates the vehicle's engine is equipped with petrol fuel injection. Also used for electric models and plug-in hybrids.
"G" was originally used for the Geländewagen off-road vehicle, but is now applied to Mercedes SUVs in general (G, GLA, GLC, GLE, GLK, and GLS).
"K" was used in the 1930s, indicating a supercharger ("Kompressor") equipped engine. Three exceptions : the SLK, SSK and CLK, where K indicates "Kurz" (short-wheelbase) (though the SLK[61] and SSK had a supercharger).
"L" indicates "Leicht" (lightweight) for sporting models and "Lang" (long-wheelbase) for sedan models.
"R" indicates "Rennen" (racing), used for racing cars (for example, the 300SLR).
"S" Sonderklasse "Special class" for flagship models, including the S-Class, and SL-Class, SLR McLaren, and SLS sports cars.
"T" indicates "Touring" and an estate (or station wagon) body style.
Some models in the 1950s also had lower-case letters (b, c, and d) to indicate specific trim levels. For other models, the numeric part of the designation does not match the engine displacement. This was done to show the model's position in the model range independent of displacement or in the price matrix. For these vehicles, the actual displacement in litres is suffixed to the model designation. An exception was the 190-class with the numeric designation of "190" as to denote its entry-level in the model along with the displacement label on the right side of the boot (190E 2.3 for 2.3-litre 4-cylinder petrol motor, 190D 2.5 for 2.5-litre 5-cylinder diesel motor, and so forth). Some older models (such as the SS and SSK) did not have a number as part of the designation at all.
1994 to 2014
For the 1994 model year, Mercedes-Benz revised the naming system. Models were divided into "classes" denoted by an arrangement of up to three letters (see "Current model range" above), followed by a three-digit (or two-digit for AMG models, with the number approximately equal to the displacement in litres multiplied by 10) number related to the engine displacement as before. Variants of the same model such as an estate version or a vehicle with a diesel engine are no longer given a separate letter. The SLR and SLS supercars do not carry a numerical designation.
Today, many numerical designations no longer reflect the engine's actual displacement, but more of the relative performance and marketing position. Despite its engine displacement in two litres, the powerplant in the A45 AMG produces 355 brake horsepower so the designation is higher as to indicate the greater performance. Another example is the E250 CGI having greater performance than the E200 CGI due to the different engine tuning even though both have 1.8-litre engines. From the marketing perspective, E200 seems more "upscale" than E180. Recent AMG models use the "63" designation (in honor of the 1960s 6.3-litre M100 engine) despite being equipped with either a 6.2-litre (M156), a 5.5-litre (M157) or even a 4.0-litre engine.
Some models carry further designations indicating special features:
"4MATIC" indicates the vehicle is equipped with all-wheel-drive.
"BlueTEC" indicates a diesel engine with selective catalytic reduction exhaust aftertreatment.
"BlueEFFICIENCY" indicates special fuel economy features (direct injection, start-stop system, aerodynamic modifications, etc.)
"CGI" (Charged Gasoline Injection) indicates direct gasoline injection.
"CDI" (Common-rail Direct Injection) indicates a common-rail diesel engine.
"Hybrid" indicates a petrol- or diesel-electric hybrid.
"NGT" indicates a natural gas-fueled engine.
"Kompressor" indicates a supercharged engine.
"Turbo" indicates a turbocharged engine, only used on A-, B-, E- and GLK-Class models.
"AMG Line" indicates the interior or engine, depending which car, has been fitted with the luxuries of their AMG sports cars.
Model designation badges can be removed at the request of the customer.
2015 and beyond
Rationalisation of the model nomenclature was announced in November 2014 for future models.[62][63] The changes consolidate many confusing nomenclature and their placements in the model range such as CL-Class is now called the S-Class Coupé. The naming structure is divided into four categories: core, off-road vehicle/SUV, 4-door coupé, and roadster. AMG GT and V-Class are unaffected by the change. In October 2016, Mercedes unveiled the X-Class; a pickup truck built on the Nissan Navara.[64][65] At the 2016 Paris Motor Show, the company announced the EQ, a family of upcoming battery electric vehicles based on a modular platform, expected to represent up to 25% of its global sales by 2025.[66]
Core Off-Road Vehicles/SUV 4-Door Coupé Roadster
A GLA CLA
B GLB
C GLC SLC
E GLE CLS
S GLS SL
N/A G N/A N/A
Note: The CLA is positioned between the A- and B-Class models, while the CLS sits between the E- and S-Classes.
In addition to the revised nomenclature, Mercedes-Benz has new suffix nomenclature for the drive systems.
Current New Example
Natural Gas Drive c for "compressed natural gas" B 200 c
BlueTec
CDI
d for "diesel" E 350 d
GLA 200 d
PLUG-IN HYBRID
Electric Drive
e for "electric" S 500 e
B 250 e
Fuel Cell f for "fuel cell" B 200 f
HYBRID
BlueTEC HYBRID
h for "hybrid" S 400 h
E 300 h
4MATIC 4MATIC (4-wheel drive) E 400 4MATIC
The revised A45 AMG for 2016 model year on has shifted the model designation to the right side while AMG is on the left side.[67] This trend commenced with Mercedes-Maybach with MAYBACH on the left and S500/S600 on the right.[68]
Environmental record
See also: Diesel emissions scandal
Mercedes-Benz has developed multi-concept cars with alternative propulsion, such as hybrid-electric, fully electric, and fuel-cell powertrains. At the 2007 Frankfurt motor show, Mercedes-Benz showed seven hybrid models, including the F700 concept car, powered by a hybrid-electric drivetrain featuring the DiesOtto engine.[69] In 2009, Mercedes-Benz displayed three BlueZERO concepts at the North American International Auto Show. Each car features a different powertrain - battery-electric, fuel-cell electric, and gasoline-electric hybrid.[70][71] In the same year, Mercedes also showed the Vision S500 PHEV concept with a 19 miles (31 km) all-electric range and CO2 emissions of 74 grams/km in the New European Driving Cycle.[72]
Since 2002, Mercedes-Benz has developed the F-Cell fuel cell vehicle. The current version, based on the B-Class, has a 250-mile range and is available for lease, with volume production scheduled to begin in 2014. Mercedes has also announced the SLS AMG E-Cell, a fully electric version of the SLS sports car, with deliveries expected in 2013.[73] The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHYBRID[74] was launched in 2009, and is the first production automotive hybrid in the world to use a lithium-ion battery.[75][76][77] In mid-2010, production commenced on the Vito E-Cell all-electric van.
In 2008, Mercedes-Benz announced that it would have a demonstration fleet of small electric cars in two to three years.[78] Mercedes-Benz and Smart are preparing for the widespread uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) in the UK by beginning the installation of recharging points across their dealer networks. So far 20 Elektrobay recharging units, produced in the UK by Brighton-based Elektromotive, have been installed at seven locations as part of a pilot project, and further expansion of the initiative is planned later in 2010.[79]
In the United States, Mercedes-Benz was assessed a record US$30.66 million fine for their decision to not meet the federal corporate average fuel economy standard in 2009.[80] Certain Mercedes-Benz cars, including the S550 and all AMG models sold in the United States, also face an additional gas guzzler tax.[81] However, newer AMG models fitted with the M157 engine will not be subject to the gas-guzzler tax, due to improved fuel economy,[82] and newer models powered by the M276 and M278 engines will have better fuel economy. In 2008, Mercedes also had the worst CO2 average of all major European manufacturers, ranking 14th out of 14 manufacturers.[83] Mercedes was also the worst manufacturer in 2007 and 2006 in terms of average CO2 levels, with 181 g and 188 g of CO2 emitted per km, respectively.[84]
Mercedes-Benz paid an additional US$38 million for failing to meet its CAFE standards for model years 2008–2011.[85]
In May 2017, Mercedes partnered with Vivint Solar to develop a solar-energy home storage battery.[86]
In February 2018, it was announced that Mercedes cabin air filters earned the Asthma and Allergy Friendly Certification.[87]
Electric cars
Mercedes opened its sixth battery factory in 2018. Critics deemed the marque's EQS sedan a tough competitor to Tesla, Inc.[88][89] The six factories are established across three continents.
Mercedes-Benz EQC
The brand has also launched its electric EQ brand with the EQC SUV which was set for production in the year 2019. In September 2018, Mercedes unveiled the EQC, its first fully electric car, at an event in Stockholm.[90][91]
2022 will be the year in which Daimler has said that the company will have invested $11 billion to ensure that every Mercedes-Benz has a fully electric or hybrid version available on the market.[92]
While releasing details of the project, Markus Schäfer said,
"Our electric vehicles will be built in six plants on three continents. We address every market segment: from the smart fortwo seater to the large SUV. The battery is the key component of e-mobility. As batteries are the heart of our electric vehicles we put a great emphasis on building them in our own factories. With our global battery network, we are in an excellent position: As we are close to our vehicle plants we can ensure the optimal supply of production. In case of a short-term high demand in another part of the world our battery factories are also well prepared for export. The electric initiative of Mercedes-Benz Cars is right on track. Our global production network is ready for e-mobility. We are electrifying the future."[93] After Audi declared that it would cut more than 9,000 jobs by 2025, the owner of Mercedes-Benz announced that the company will shed around 10,000 jobs worldwide to focus on electric cars.[94]
In January 2021, Mercedes-Benz revealed its new electric SUV, the EQA, which will have a range of 426 kilometres and will be on sale in Europe starting 4 February.[95]
Motorsport
Main article: Mercedes-Benz in motorsport
A DMG Mercedes Simplex 1906 in the Deutsches Museum
The two companies which were merged to form the Mercedes-Benz brand in 1926 had both already enjoyed success in the new sport of motor racing throughout their separate histories. A single Benz competed in the world's first motor race, the 1894 Paris–Rouen, where Émile Roger finished 14th in 10 hours 1 minute. Throughout its long history, the company has been involved in a range of motorsport activities, including sports car racing and rallying. On several occasions, Mercedes-Benz has withdrawn completely from motorsport for a significant period, notably in the late 1930s, and after the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR rammed another car (an Austin-Healey), took off into the stands, and killed more than 80 spectators. Stirling Moss and co-driver Denis Jenkinson won the 1955 Mille Miglia road race in Italy during a record-breaking drive with an average speed of almost 98 mph in a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR.[96]
Although there was some activity in the intervening years, it was not until 1987 that Mercedes-Benz returned to front line competition, returning to Le Mans, Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM), and Formula One with Sauber. The 1990s saw Mercedes-Benz partner with British engine builder Ilmor (now Mercedes-Benz High Performance Engines), and campaign IndyCars under the USAC/CART rules, eventually winning the 1994 Indianapolis 500 and 1994 CART IndyCar World Series Championship with Al Unser Jr. at the wheel. The 1990s also saw the return of Mercedes-Benz to GT racing with the Mercedes-Benz CLK GTR, which took the company to two titles in FIA's GT1 class.
Mercedes-Benz is currently active in four motorsport categories, Formula Three, Formula E, Formula One and GT3.
Formula One
Both Mercedes-AMG Formula One cars at the 2013 Malaysian Grand Prix.
Main article: Mercedes-Benz in Formula One
Mercedes-Benz took part in the world championship in 1954 and 1955, but despite being successful with two championship titles for Juan-Manuel Fangio,[97] the company left the sport after just two seasons.
Mercedes-Benz returned as an engine manufacturer in 1994, with the engines being designed and manufactured by Ilmor in Brixworth.[98] It initially partnered with Sauber, before switching to McLaren in 1995. Although the Mercedes engines were not successful at first, they later won drivers' championships for Mika Häkkinen in 1998 and 1999, and for Lewis Hamilton in 2008, as well as a constructors' championship in 1998. Mercedes part-owned McLaren, and the collaboration had been extended into the production of road-going cars such as the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren.
In 2007, McLaren-Mercedes was fined a record US$100 million for stealing confidential Ferrari technical data.[99]
In 2009, Ross Brawn's newly conceived Formula One team, Brawn GP used Mercedes engines to win the titles. At the end of the season, Mercedes-Benz sold its 40% stake in McLaren to the McLaren Group and bought 70% of the Brawn GP team jointly with an Abu Dhabi-based investment consortium. Brawn GP was renamed Mercedes GP for the 2010 season and became the main team for Mercedes-Benz. The company continued providing engines to other teams under customer relationships.[100]
After major rule changes in 2014, Mercedes clinched the drivers' and constructors' titles with drivers Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg, after dominating much of the season. Mercedes repeated the feat in 2015, winning 16 out of 19 races, and again in 2016, winning 19 of the 21 races. In the following years, Mercedes continued their success by winning the drivers' championships from 2017 to 2020 and the constructors' championships from 2017 to 2021, becoming the first team to win seven consecutive "double-championships".[101][102][103] In these years, Hamilton was the champion in 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020, while Rosberg won in 2016.[101] Their unbeaten streak was broken in 2021, when Max Verstappen of Red Bull-Honda won the drivers' championship.
Formula E
Main article: Mercedes EQ Formula E Team
Prior to pre-season testing of the 2019–20 Formula E Championship, it was announced that Mercedes, through its EQ branch, would join the championship with drivers Stoffel Vandoorne and 2019 FIA Formula 2 champion Nyck De Vries. The team named their Spark Gen2 challenger the Mercedes EQ Silver Arrow 01.
Logo history
In June 1909, Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) registered both a three-pointed and a four-pointed star as trademarks, but only the three-pointed star was used. To DMG, the star symbolized Gottlieb Daimler's aims for universal motorization: on land, water and in the air.[104]
1902–1909
1909–1916
1916–1926
1926–1980
1980–1990
1990–current
Noted employees
Paul Bracq – major designer of automobiles in the 20th century
Adolf Daimler – chief engineer, COO and member of the board of directors 1899–1913. Son of Gottlieb Daimler and developer of the brand logo.[105]
Béla Barényi – car safety pioneer (rigid passenger safety shell), joined Daimler-Benz in 1937[106]
Wilhelm Maybach – automotive pioneer, first met Gottlieb Daimler in 1865[107]
Ferdinand Porsche – founder of Porsche, joined Mercedes in 1923 and developed the Kompressor[108]
Bruno Sacco – joined Daimler-Benz as a designer in 1958. Head of Design in 1975, retired in 1999[109]
Rudolf Uhlenhaut – joined Daimler-Benz in 1931, his designs included the Silver Arrows, the 300 SL and 300SLR[110]
Adolf Eichmann – former Nazi criminal. Worked in Argentina's factory after WWII[111]
Rudolf Caracciola – one of the greatest GP drivers in history drove MB Silver Arrows in competition.
Josef Ganz - Technical consultant and "Godfather" of the *Mercedes-Benz W136, with the revolutionary Independent suspension, Swing axle layout.
Juan Manuel Fangio - Five-time Formula 1 World Champion, honorary president of Mercedes-Benz Argentina from 1987 until his death in 1995.
Michael Schumacher - Seven-time Formula 1 World Champion, drove for Mercedes in the World Endurance Championship in the 80s and then in their Formula One Team from 2010 till 2012.
Lewis Hamilton - Seven-time Formula 1 World Champion, current driver for their Formula One Team since 2013 who holds the all-time record for most pole positions (103) and race victories (103).[112] Despite being a Mercedes driver since 2013, Hamilton has competed his entire career using Mercedes engines since 2007 and has been affiliated with Mercedes since he was 13 years old.
Nico Rosberg - 2016 Formula 1 World Champion, drove for Mercedes in their Formula One Team from 2010 till 2016. Rosberg won all his races and achieved all his pole positions with Mercedes and is currently a brand ambassador for Mercedes.
Innovations
Numerous technological innovations have been introduced on Mercedes-Benz automobiles throughout the many years of their production, including:
The internal combustion engine automobile was developed independently by Benz and Daimler & Maybach in 1886.
Daimler invented the honeycomb radiator of the type still used on all water-cooled vehicles today.
Daimler invented the float carburetor which was used until replaced by fuel injection.
The "drop chassis" – the car originally designated the "Mercedes" by Daimler was also the first car with a modern configuration, having the carriage lowered and set between the front and rear wheels, with a front engine and powered rear wheels. All earlier cars were "horseless carriages", which had high centres of gravity and various engine/drive-train configurations.
The first passenger road car to have brakes on all four wheels (1924)[113]
In 1936, the Mercedes-Benz 260 D was the first diesel-powered passenger car.
Mercedes-Benz were the first to offer direct fuel injection on the Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing.
The "safety cage" or "safety cell" construction with front and rear crumple zones was first developed by Mercedes-Benz in 1951. This is considered by many as the most important innovation in automobile construction from a safety standpoint.[19][verification needed]
In 1959, Mercedes-Benz patented a device that prevents drive wheels from spinning by intervening at the engine, transmission, or brakes. In 1987, Mercedes-Benz applied for its patent by introducing a traction control system that worked under both braking and acceleration.
an Anti-Lock Brake system (ABS) was first offered on the W116 450SEL 6.9. They became standard on the W126 S-Class starting production in 1979 and first sold in most markets in 1980.
Airbags were first introduced in the European market, beginning with the model year 1981 S-Class.
Mercedes-Benz was the first to introduce pre-tensioners to seat belts on the 1981 S-Class. In the event of a crash, a pre-tensioner will tighten the belt instantaneously, removing any 'slack' in the belt, which prevents the occupant from jerking forward in a crash.
In September 2003, Mercedes-Benz introduced the world's first seven-speed automatic transmission called '7G-Tronic'.
Electronic Stability Programme (ESP), brake assist,[114] and many other types of safety equipment were all developed, tested, and implemented into passenger cars – first – by Mercedes-Benz. Mercedes-Benz has not made a large fuss about its innovations and has even licensed them for use by competitors – in the name of improving automobile and passenger safety. As a result, crumple zones and anti-lock brakes (ABS) are now standard on all modern vehicles.[19][verification needed]
Mercedes M156 engine
The (W211) E320 CDI which has a variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) 3.0-litre V6 common rail diesel engine (producing 224 hp or 167 kW), set three world endurance records. It covered 100,000 miles (160,000 km) in a record time, with an average speed of 224.823 km/h (139.70 mph). Three identical cars did the endurance run (one set above record) and the other two cars set world records for time taken to cover 100,000 kilometres (62,137 mi) and 50,000 miles (80,000 km) respectively. After all three cars had completed the run, their combined distance was 300,000 miles (480,000 km) (all records were FIA approved).[115][clarification needed]
Mercedes-Benz pioneered a system called Pre-Safe to detect an imminent crash – and prepares the car's safety systems to respond optimally. It also calculates the optimal braking force required to avoid an accident in emergency situations and makes it immediately available for when the driver depresses the brake pedal. Occupants are also prepared by tightening the seat belt, closing the sunroof and windows, and moving the seats into the optimal position.
At 181 horsepower per litre, the M133 engine installed in Mercedes-Benz A45 AMG was (as of June 2013) the most powerful series-production four-cylinder turbocharged motor, and has one of the highest power densities of a passenger vehicle.[116]
Half a century of vehicle safety innovation helped win Mercedes-Benz the Safety Award at the 2007 What Car? Awards.[113]
Robot cars
Main article: Driverless car
In the 1980s Mercedes built the world's first robot car, together with the team of Professor Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University Munich.[117] Encouraged in part by Dickmanns' success, in 1987 the European Union's EUREKA programme initiated the Prometheus Project on autonomous vehicles, funded to the tune of nearly €800 million. In 1995 Dickmanns' re-engineered autonomous S-Class Mercedes took a long trip from Munich in Bavaria to Copenhagen in Denmark, and back. On highways, the robot achieved speeds exceeding 175 km/h (109 mph) (permissible in some areas of the German Autobahn).
In October 2015, the company introduced the Vision Tokyo, a five-seat self-driving electric van powered by a hybrid hydrogen fuel-cell system. The super-sleek van is touted as "a chill-out zone in the midst of megacity traffic mayhem."[118]
Tuners
Several companies have become car tuners (or modifiers) of Mercedes Benz, in order to increase performance and/or luxury to a given model. AMG is Mercedes-Benz's in-house performance-tuning division, specialising in high-performance versions of most Mercedes-Benz cars. AMG engines are all hand-built,[119] and each completed engine receives a tag with the signature of the engineer who built it. AMG has been wholly owned by Mercedes-Benz since 1999.[120] The 2009 SLS AMG, a revival of the 300SL Gullwing, is the first car to be entirely developed by AMG.
Sponsorships
Mercedes-Benz sponsors the German national football team.
In football (soccer), Mercedes-Benz sponsored the Germany national team until 2018. Mercedes-Benz sponsors Bundesliga club VfB Stuttgart and provides the naming rights for their stadium, the Mercedes-Benz Arena. The company formerly held a ten-year naming rights contract to the Louisiana Superdome, an American football stadium in New Orleans, from 2011 to 2021.[121] On 24 August 2015, Mercedes-Benz was announced as the naming rights sponsor for the Atlanta Falcons' new home, Mercedes-Benz Stadium, (Mercedes-Benz's US headquarters are in Greater Atlanta) which opened in August 2017.[122]
Mercedes-Benz worked with English magician Steven Frayne, also known as Dynamo, to create a video called Dynamo vs Coulthard.[123] Formula One driver David Coulthard drove Dynamo around a track at race-speed in a Mercedes-Benz SL63 AMG, before Dynamo successfully drove around the same track in the same car whilst blindfolded and surrounded by pyrotechnics.[124] The stunt was part of the finale for Series 3 of Dynamo: Magician Impossible, screened on UK television channel Watch.
To promote the release of Mario Kart 8, Nintendo and Mercedes-Benz partnered up to have 3 of their cars in their history, the 2014 Mercedes-Benz GLA, the 1957 SL 300 Roadster, and the 1934 W25 Silver Arrow as karts in the game. As part of the partnership, Mario, Luigi, and Peach appeared in Japanese commercials to promote the 2014 Mercedes-Benz GLA. [125]
See also
flag Baden-Württemberg portal
flag Germany portal
Cars portal
Bertha Benz
Mercedes-AMG
Diesel emissions scandal
Notes
Establishment date of the Mercedes-Benz marque by Daimler-Benz (a predecessor of Daimler AG). The Mercedes-Benz company was established in November 2019.
As of November 2019, Mercedes-Benz-badged heavy commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) are managed by the Daimler Truck AG subsidiary of Daimler AG. It was spun-off from its parent in late 2021.
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Audi
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Not to be confused with Aldi.
For the song by American rapper Smokepurpp, see Audi (song).
Audi AG
Audi-Logo 2016.svg
Audi Ingolstadt.jpg
Headquarters in Ingolstadt
Type Subsidiary
Industry Automotive
Predecessors
Auto Union/DKW GmbH
Slaby-Beringer
Wanderer
NSU Motorenwerke AG
Founded
16 July 1909 in
Zwickau (Audi)
29 June 1932 in Chemnitz (Auto Union)
3 September 1949 in Ingolstadt (re-establishment)
10 March 1969 in Neckarsulm (Fusion)[1]
Founder August Horch[2]
Headquarters Ingolstadt, Germany
Number of locations 13 production facilities in 10 countries[3]
Area served Worldwide
Key people Markus Duesmann
(Chairman of the Board of Management & Board of Management Member for Technical Development and Product Lines)
Products Luxury vehicles
Production output Decrease 1,802,073 units[4]
Revenue Decrease €55.680 billion (2019)[5]
Operating income Increase €4.509 billion (2019)[5]
Net income Increase €3.943 billion (2019)[5]
Total assets Increase €66.878 billion (2019)[5]
Total equity Decrease €28.395 billion (2019)[5]
Number of employees 90,783 (12/2019)[6]
Parent Volkswagen Group
Divisions
Audi Germany
Audi Brussels
Audi Mexico
Audi Hungaria
Audi China
Audi do Brasil
Audi India
Audi Slovakia
Audi Spain
Audi Russia[7]
Subsidiaries
Audi Sport GmbH
Ducati
Italdesign Giugiaro
Lamborghini[7]
Website www.audi.com
Footnotes / references
Audi History: Chronicle,[8] 2011 Annual Financial Report[9]
Audi AG (German: [ˈaʊ̯di ʔaːˈɡeː] (audio speaker iconlisten)) (commonly referred to as Audi) is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. As a subsidiary of its parent company, the Volkswagen Group, Audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide.
The origins of the company are complex, going back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises (Horch and the Audiwerke) founded by engineer August Horch; and two other manufacturers (DKW and Wanderer), leading to the foundation of Auto Union in 1932. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz.[10] After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, thus creating the present-day form of the company.
The company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning "listen" in German, becomes audi in Latin. The four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audi's predecessor company, Auto Union. Audi's slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning "Being Ahead through Technology".[11] Audi, along with fellow German marques BMW and Mercedes-Benz, is among the best-selling luxury automobile brands in the world.[12]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Birth of the company and its name
1.2 The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings
1.3 Post-World War II
1.4 New Auto Union unit
1.5 Modern era
1.6 Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations
1.7 Model introductions
1.8 Audi AG today
2 Technology
2.1 Audi AI
2.2 Bodyshells
2.3 Space frame
2.4 Drivetrains
2.5 LED daytime running lights
2.6 Multi Media Interface
2.7 Synthetic fuels
2.8 Logistics
3 Models
3.1 Current model range
3.2 S and RS models
3.3 Electric vehicles
3.4 Self-driving cars
4 Production figures
5 Motorsport
5.1 Rallying
5.2 In the United States
5.3 Touring cars
5.4 24 Hours of Le Mans
5.5 American Le Mans Series
5.6 European Le Mans Series
5.7 World Endurance Championship
5.8 Formula E
5.9 Formula One
6 Marketing
6.1 Branding
6.2 Sponsorships
6.3 Multitronic campaign
6.4 Audi TDI
6.5 Audi e-tron
6.6 In video games
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History
Birth of the company and its name
Automobile company Wanderer was originally established in 1885, later becoming a branch of Audi AG. Another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimler's four-wheeler.[13]
On 14 November 1899, August Horch (1868–1951) established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne. In 1902, he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On 10 May 1904, he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony).
After troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement. The German Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) in Leipzig,[14] eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company.[15]
1923 Audi Type E
Since August Horch was prohibited from using "Horch" as a trade name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company. During this meeting, Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, "Father – audiatur et altera pars... wouldn't it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch?"[16] "Horch!" in German means "Hark!" or "hear", which is "Audi" in the singular imperative form of "audire" – "to listen" – in Latin. The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting.[17] On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau (from 1915 on Audiwerke AG Zwickau) was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court.
The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp (16 kW) Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year,[18] followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year.[19]
Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model, as well as 4,680 cc and 5,720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six-cylinder model Type M, 4,655 cc appeared in 1924.[20]
August Horch left the Audiwerke in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport, but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car, the Audi Type K, with left-handed drive.[21] Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking safer[21] when driving on the right.
The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings
Main article: Auto Union
In August 1928, Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG.[22] In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for 8-cylinder engines. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau and Audi Dresden models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, 6-cylinder and 4-cylinder (the "four" with a Peugeot engine) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork.
In 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW, and Wanderer, to form Auto Union AG, Chemnitz. It was during this period that the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with front-wheel drive. It used a power train shared with the Wanderer, but turned 180 degrees, so that the drive shaft faced the front.
Before World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. However, this badge was used only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch- or Wanderer-built engines.
Reflecting the economic pressures of the time, Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s, so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for 17.9% of the German car market, while Audi held only 0.1%. After the final few Audis were delivered in 1939 the "Audi" name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades.
Post-World War II
IFA F9
Like most German manufacturing, at the onset of World War II the Auto Union plants were retooled for military production, and were a target for allied bombing during the war which left them damaged.
Overrun by the Soviet Army in 1945, on the orders of the Soviet Union military administration the factories were dismantled as part of war reparations.[23] Following this, the company's entire assets were expropriated without compensation.[23] On 17 August 1948, Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register.[22] These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for "People Owned Enterprise") Automobilwerk Zwickau [de] or AWZ (in English: Automobile Works Zwickau).
With no prospect of continuing production in Soviet-controlled East Germany, Auto Union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to West Germany. A site was chosen in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, to start a spare parts operation in late 1945, which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed Auto Union in 1949.
The former Audi factory in Zwickau restarted assembly of the pre-war models in 1949. These DKW models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. The Zwickau plant manufactured the infamous Trabant until 1991, when it came under Volkswagen control—effectively bringing it under the same umbrella as Audi since 1945.
New Auto Union unit
A new West German headquartered Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid.[23] The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines.[23] This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F89 L at Ingolstadt. The Ingolstadt site was large, consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution, but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles: for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig. It was only ten years later, after the company had attracted an investor, when funds became available for construction of major car plant at the Ingolstadt head office site.
In 1958, in response to pressure from Friedrich Flick, then the company's largest single shareholder,[24] Daimler-Benz took an 87% holding in the Auto Union company, and this was increased to a 100% holding in 1959. However, small two-stroke cars were not the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests, and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new Mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for Auto Union's, the company's aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Opel. The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business was based on its lack of profitability.[25] Ironically, by the time they sold the business, it also included a large new factory and near production-ready modern four-stroke engine, which would enable the Auto Union business, under a new owner, to embark on a period of profitable growth, now producing not Auto Unions or DKWs, but using the "Audi" name, resurrected in 1965 after a 25-year gap.
In 1964, Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business, which included the new factory in Ingolstadt, the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz, who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant. Eighteen months later, Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt, and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per year.[26] Two-stroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear. Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology, and having classified the model internally as the F103, sold it simply as the "Audi". Later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90, selling until 1972. Initially, Volkswagen was hostile to the idea of Auto Union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the Ingolstadt assembly plant – to the point where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings. Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union from any further product development. Fearing that Volkswagen had no long-term ambition for the Audi brand, Auto Union engineers under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed the first Audi 100 in secret, without Nordhoff's knowledge. When presented with a finished prototype, Nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production, which when launched in 1968, went on to be a huge success. With this, the resurrection of the Audi brand was now complete, this being followed by the first generation Audi 80 in 1972, which would in turn provide a template for VW's new front-wheel-drive water-cooled range which debuted from the mid-1970s onward.
Audi 80 assembly line in Wolfsburg, 1973
In 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety. However, teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm factory is also home of the "quattro GmbH" (from November 2016 "Audi Sport GmbH"), a subsidiary responsible for development and production of Audi high-performance models: the R8 and the RS model range.
Modern era
Participation certificate of the Audi NSU Auto Union AG, issued August 1969
The new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG, with its headquarters at NSU's Neckarsulm plant, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. That same year, the mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, originally intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80, was instead launched as a Volkswagen.
After the launch of the Audi 100 of 1968, the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. Ultimately, the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 and A6, respectively) became the company's biggest sellers, whilst little investment was made in the fading NSU range; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of production in 1977, spelling the effective end of the NSU brand. Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed, and by the appearance of the second generation C2 version in 1976, all production was now at the former NSU plant. Neckarsulm from that point onward would produce Audi's higher-end models.
The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger[27] was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the "Audi Quattro", a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a centre differential. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean "original" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel-drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology.
In 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply Audi AG. At the same time the company's headquarters moved back to Ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries; Auto Union GmbH and NSU GmbH, were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies (the exception being Horch, which had been retained by Daimler-Benz after the VW takeover), and to operate Audi's heritage operations.
Audi Quattro
In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface.
In the early part of the 21st century, Audi set forth on a German racetrack to claim and maintain several world records, such as top speed endurance. This effort was in-line with the company's heritage from the 1930s racing era Silver Arrows.
Through the early 1990s, Audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet.
By 1991, Audi had the four-cylinder Audi 80, the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupé version of the 80/90 with both four- and five-cylinder engines.
Although the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of four-, five-, and six-cylinder engines, in saloon, coupé and convertible body styles.
The five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged 220 PS (160 kW; 220 hp) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, named the S2, and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars.
Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations
Sales in the United States fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models[28] associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents.[28] At the time, NHTSA was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power.[29]
A 60 Minutes report aired 23 November 1986,[30] featuring interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed.[31][32] Subsequent investigation revealed that 60 Minutes had engineered the failure – fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission.[30]
Audi 100 C3, sold as the Audi 5000 in the U.S.
Audi contended, prior to findings by outside investigators,[29] that the problems were caused by driver error, specifically pedal misapplication.[29] Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the 60 Minutes report, were caused by driver error such as confusion of pedals.[33] CBS did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies, but did acknowledge the similar results of another study.[31]
In a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: "Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident."[34]
This summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: "Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g [which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car]. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI)], but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver.[35] The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [were also observed and] reported by Transport Canada."[35]
With a series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models.[28] Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park.[28] A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse. It is unclear how the defects in the idle-stabilization system were addressed.
Audi's U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years,[28] – with resale values falling dramatically.[36] Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection[36] and renamed the affected models – with the 5000 becoming the 100 and 200 in 1989[29] – and reached the same sales levels again only by model year 2000.[28]
A 2010 BusinessWeek article – outlining possible parallels between Audi's experience and 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls – noted a class-action lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and remains contested in Chicago's Cook County after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels.[28]
Model introductions
In the mid-to-late 1990s, Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminium construction. Produced from 1999 to 2005, the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini, born from the Al2 concept, with many features that helped regain consumer confidence, like the aluminium space frame, which was a first in production car design. In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines. The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel. The Audi A2 was criticised for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted Audi as a cutting-edge manufacturer. The model, a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, sold relatively well in Europe. However, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement.
The next major model change came in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings.
The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L four-cylinder, 1.8 L four-cylinder turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2 L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4 L and 2.8 L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 engine for the A8.
Audi AG today
Audi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s, with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). China in particular has become a key market, representing 108,000 out of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009. One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials, and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales in China.[37] As of late 2009, Audi's operating profit of €1.17 billion ($1.85 billion) made it the biggest contributor to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5 billion, while the other marques in Group such as Bentley and SEAT had suffered considerable losses.[38] May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel.[39] In May 2012, Audi reported a 10% increase in its sales—from 408 units to 480 in the last year alone.[40]
Audi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world, some of which are shared with other VW Group marques[41] although many sub-assemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other Volkswagen Group plants.
Audi's two principal assembly plants are:
Ingolstadt, opened by Auto Union in 1964 (A3, A4, A5, Q5)
Neckarsulm, acquired from NSU in 1969 (A4, A6, A7, A8, R8, and all RS variants)
Outside of Germany, Audi produces vehicles at:
Aurangabad, India, since 2006
Bratislava, Slovakia, shared with Volkswagen, SEAT, Škoda and Porsche (Q7 and Q8)
Brussels, Belgium, acquired from Volkswagen in 2007 (e-tron)
Changchun, China, since 1995
Győr, Hungary (TT and some A3 variants)
Jakarta, Indonesia, since 2011
Martorell, Spain, shared with SEAT and Volkswagen (A1)
San José Chiapa, Mexico (2nd gen Q5)
In September 2012, Audi announced the construction of its first North American manufacturing plant in Puebla, Mexico. This plant became operative in 2016 and produces the second generation Q5.[42]
From 2002 up to 2003, Audi headed the Audi Brand Group, a subdivision of the Volkswagen Group's Automotive Division consisting of Audi, Lamborghini and SEAT, which was focused on sporty values, with the marques' product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand.
In January 2014, Audi, along with the Wireless Power Consortium, operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the Qi open interface standard at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES).[43] In May, most of the Audi dealers in the UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7, A8, and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested, all achieving five out of five stars. In fact none were tested.[44]
In 2015, Audi admitted that at least 2.1 million Audi cars had been involved in the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software installed in the cars manipulated emissions data to fool regulators and allow the cars to pollute at higher than government-mandated levels. The A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, TT, Q3 and Q5 models were implicated in the scandal.[45] Audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so they can function within emissions regulations.[46] Ulrich Hackenberg, the head of research and development at Audi, was suspended in relation to the scandal.[47] Despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of September, Audi reported that U.S. sales for the month had increased by 16.2%.[48] Audi's parent company Volkswagen announced on 18 June 2018 that Audi chief executive Rupert Stadler had been arrested.[49]
In November 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro, A7 Quattro, A8, A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software installed.[50] Thus, these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment.[51]
In November 2016, Audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in Pakistan, with the company's local partner acquiring land for a plant in Korangi Creek Industrial Park in Karachi. Approval of the plan would lead to an investment of $30 million in the new plant.[52] Audi planned to cut 9,500 jobs in Germany starting from 2020 till 2025 to fund electric vehicles and digital working.[53]
In February 2020, Volkswagen AG announced that it plans to take over all Audi shares it does not own (totalling 0.36%) via a squeeze-out according to German stock corporation law, thus making Audi a fully owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.[54] This change took effect from 16 November 2020, when Audi became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.[55]
In January 2021, Audi announced that it is planning to sell 1 million vehicles in China in 2023, comparing to 726,000 vehicles in 2020.[56]
Technology
Audi AI
Audi AI is a driver assist feature offered by Audi. The company's stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving at a future time, acknowledging that legal, regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal. On 4 June 2017, Audi stated that its new A8 will be fully self-driving for speeds up to 60 km/h using its Audi AI. Contrary to other cars, the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature. The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. Audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3D Lidar system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their AI.[57][58]
Bodyshells
Audi produces 100% galvanised cars to prevent corrosion,[59] and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c. 1975. Along with other precautionary measures, the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for aluminium bodies which do not rust).[60]
Space frame
The Audi R8 uses Audi Space Frame technology
Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance. An all-aluminium car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium space frame technology (called Audi Space Frame or ASF) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as test-beds for the technique. The disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop.[61] The weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in most markets. Nonetheless, the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, also having best-in-class fuel economy.[62] The Audi A2, Audi TT and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs.
Drivetrains
Layout
For most of its lineup (excluding the A3, A1, and TT models), Audi has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars (such as Peugeot and Citroën), since that would limit the type and power of engines that can be installed. To be able to mount powerful engines (such as a V8 engine in the Audi S4 and Audi RS4, as well as the W12 engine in the Audi A8L W12), Audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally front-mounted engine, in an "overhung" position, over the front wheels in front of the axle line - this layout dates back to the DKW and Auto Union saloons from the 1950s. But while this allows for the easy adoption of all-wheel drive, it goes against the ideal 50:50 weight distribution.
In all its post Volkswagen-era models, Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW, favoring either front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. The majority of Audi's lineup in the United States features all-wheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles (only the entry-level trims of the A4 and A6 are available with front-wheel drive), in contrast to Mercedes-Benz and BMW whose lineup treats all-wheel drive as an option. BMW did not offer all-wheel drive on its V8-powered cars (as opposed to crossover SUVs) until the 2010 BMW 7 Series and 2011 BMW 5 Series, while the Audi A8 has had all-wheel drive available/standard since the 1990s. Regarding high-performance variants, Audi S and RS models have always had all-wheel drive, unlike their direct rivals from BMW M and Mercedes-AMG whose cars are rear-wheel drive only (although their performance crossover SUVs are all-wheel drive).
Audi has recently applied the quattro badge to models such as the A3 and TT which do not use the Torsen-based system as in prior years with a mechanical center differential, but with the Haldex Traction electro-mechanical clutch AWD system.
Engines
Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Production model engines
Volkswagen Group W12 engine from the Volkswagen Phaeton W12
Prior to the introduction of the Audi 80 and Audi 50 in 1972 and 1974, respectively, Audi had led the development of the EA111 and EA827 inline-four engine families. These new power units underpinned the water-cooled revival of parent company Volkswagen (in the Polo, Golf, Passat and Scirocco), whilst the many derivatives and descendants of these two basic engine designs have appeared in every generation of VW Group vehicles right up to the present day.
In the 1980s, Audi, along with Volvo, was the champion of the inline-five cylinder, 2.1/2.2 L engine as a longer-lasting alternative to more traditional six-cylinder engines. This engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars. The 2.1 L inline five-cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s, providing well over 400 horsepower (300 kilowatts) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity allowed for both fuel economy and power.
For the ultra-luxury version of its Audi A8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan, the Audi A8L W12, Audi uses the Volkswagen Group W12 engine instead of the conventional V12 engine favored by rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW. The W12 engine configuration (also known as a "WR12") is created by forming two imaginary narrow-angle 15° VR6 engines at an angle of 72°, and the narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks, so just four are needed in total. The advantage of the W12 engine is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 engine could have only a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, the 6.0 L W12 in the Audi A8L W12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 4.2 L V8 that powers the Audi A8 4.2 variants.[63] The 2011 Audi A8 debuted a revised 6.3-litre version of the W12 (WR12) engine with 500 PS (370 kW; 490 hp).
Fuel Stratified Injection
New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the ageing 1.8-litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) engines. Nearly every petroleum burning model in the range now incorporates this fuel-saving technology.
V8 FSI engine
Direct-Shift Gearbox
In 2003, Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG), a type of dual-clutch transmission. It is a type of automatic transmission, drivable like a conventional torque converter automatic transmission. Based on the gearbox found in the Group B S1, the system includes dual electro-hydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter. This is implemented in some VW Golfs, Audi A3, Audi A4 and TT models where DSG is called S-Tronic.
LED daytime running lights
Beginning in 2005, Audi has implemented white LED technology as daytime running lights (DRL) in their products. The distinctive shape of the DRLs has become a trademark of sorts. LEDs were first introduced on the Audi A8 W12, the world's first production car to have LED DRLs,[64][65][66] and have since spread throughout the entire model range. The LEDs are present on some Audi billboards.
Since 2010, Audi has also offered the LED technology in low- and high-beam headlights.[67]
The DRL in an Audi A4 B8
Multi Media Interface
Multi Media Interface-Menu on Audi virtual cockpit, Audi TT Mk3
Starting with the 2003 Audi A8, Audi has used a centralised control interface for its on-board infotainment systems, called Multi Media Interface (MMI). It is essentially a rotating control knob and 'segment' buttons – designed to control all in-car entertainment devices (radio, CD changer, iPod, TV tuner), satellite navigation, heating and ventilation, and other car controls with a screen.
The availability of MMI has gradually filtered down the Audi lineup, and following its introduction on the third generation A3 in 2011, MMI is now available across the entire range. It has been generally well received, as it requires less menu-surfing with its segment buttons around a central knob, along with 'main function' direct access buttons – with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions. The colour screen is mounted on the upright dashboard, and on the A4 (new), A5, A6, A8, and Q7, the controls are mounted horizontally.
Synthetic fuels
Main article: Electrofuel
Audi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide.[68][69][70] Audi calls the synthetic diesel E-diesel. It is also working on synthetic gasoline (which it calls E-gasoline).[71]
Logistics
Audi uses scanning gloves for parts registration during assembly, and automatic robots to transfer cars from factory to rail cars.[72]
Models
Main article: List of Audi vehicles
Current model range
The following tables list Audi production vehicles that are sold as of 2018:
Audi cars
A1 2018 Audi A1 S Line 30 TFSi S-A 1.0.jpg Supermini
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
A3 Audi A3 8Y 45 TFSI e IMG 4931.jpg Small family car
Saloon (sedan)
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
A4 2018 Audi A4 Sport TDi Quattro S-A 2.0.jpg Compact
executive car
Saloon (sedan)
Avant (estate/wagon)
Allroad (crossover
estate/wagon)
A5 2018 Audi A5 S Line TDi S-A 2.0 Front.jpg Compact
executive car
Coupé
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
Cabriolet (convertible)
A6 2018 Audi A6 TDi Quattro Front.jpg Executive car
Saloon (sedan)
Avant (estate/wagon)
Allroad (crossover estate/wagon)
A7 2018 Audi A7 S Line 40 TDi S-A 2.0.jpg Executive Car
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
A8 2018 Audi A8 50 TDi Quattro Automatic 3.0.jpg Full-size
luxury car
Saloon (sedan)
e-tron GT Audi e-tron GT IMG 5690.jpg Executive car
5-door fastback
Audi coupés and SUVs
TT Audi TT Roadster 45 TFSI quattro, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0732.jpg Compact sports car
Coupé
Roadster (convertible)
R8 Audi R8 V10 Decennium, GIMS 2019, Le Grand-Saconnex (GIMS1180).jpg Sports car
Coupé
Spyder (convertible)
Q2 2017 Audi Q2 Sport TDi 1.6 Front.jpg Subcompact crossover SUV
SUV
Q3 2019 Audi Q3 S Line 35 TFSi 1.5.jpg Compact crossover SUV
SUV
Q4 e-tron Audi Q4 e-tron IMG 5327.jpg Compact crossover SUV
SUV
Q5 2017 Audi Q5 S Line TFSi Quattro 2.0 Front.jpg Compact crossover SUV
SUV
Q7 2017 Audi Q7 S Line Quattro 3.0 Front.jpg Mid-size crossover SUV
SUV
Q8 2018 Audi Q8.jpg Mid-size crossover SUV
SUV
e-tron Audi e-tron, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0442.jpg Compact crossover SUV
SUV
S and RS models
Main article: Audi S and RS models
S (Sport) models
S3 Audi S3 8Y Sedan IMG 4872.jpg Small
family car
Saloon (sedan)
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
S4 AudiS4IAA 2015.jpg Compact
executive car
Saloon (sedan)
Avant (estate/wagon)
S5 2018 Audi S5 TFSi Quattro Automatic 3.0 Front.jpg Compact
executive car
Coupé
Cabriolet (convertible)
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
S6 Audi S6 Avant C8 IMG 4309.jpg Executive car
Saloon (sedan)
Avant (estate/wagon)
S7 Audi S7 C8 IMG 3594.jpg Executive car
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
S8 Audi S8 D5 IMG 3491.jpg Executive car
Saloon (sedan)
TTS Audi TTS (8S) front.JPG Compact sports car
Coupé
Roadster (convertible)
SQ2 Audi S Q2 Facelift IMG 4935.jpg Subcompact crossover SUV
Crossover
SQ5 Audi SQ5 (FY) IMG 1971.jpg Mid-size SUV
Crossover
SQ7 Audi SQ7 Temperamentrot.jpg Full-size SUV
Crossover
SQ8 Audi SQ8 IMG 4425.jpg Full-size SUV
Crossover
RS (Rennsport/racing sport) models
e-tron GT RS Audi RS e-tron GT IAA 2021 1X7A0128.jpg Executive car
5-door fastback
TT RS 2018 Audi TT RS Coupe.jpg Compact
sports car
Coupé
Roadster (convertible)
RS3 Audi RS3 8Y Auto Zuerich 2021 IMG 0210.jpg Small family car
Saloon (Sedan)
5-door hatchback
RS4 2018 Audi RS4 TFSi Quattro Automatic 2.9 Front.jpg Compact
executive car
Avant (estate/wagon)
RS5 Audi RS5 Coupe IMG 0728.jpg Compact
executive car
Coupé
Cabriolet (convertible)
RS6 Audi RS6 Avant C8 IMG 0344.jpg Compact
executive car
Avant (estate/wagon)
RS7 Audi RS7 C8 IMG 4323.jpg Executive car
Sportback (5-door hatchback)
RSQ3 Audi RS Q3 Sportback IMG 4828.jpg Compact crossover SUV
Crossover
RSQ8 Audi RSQ8 IMG 4308.jpg Full-size SUV
Crossover
Electric vehicles
Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Concept models
Audi is planning an alliance with the Japanese electronics giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the Volkswagen Group. The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the Volkswagen Group.[73] Concept electric vehicles unveiled to date include the Audi A1 Sportback Concept,[74] Audi A4 TDI Concept E,[75] and the fully electric Audi e-tron Concept Supercar.[76]
Self-driving cars
In December 2018, Audi announced to invest 14 billion Euro ($15.9 billion) in e-mobility, self-driving cars.[77]
Production figures
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 Q3 Q5 Q7 TT R8
1998[78] — — 143,974 271,152 — 174,867 — 15,355 — — — 13,682 —
1999[78] — — 143,505 252,514 — 162,573 — 14,636 — — — 52,579 —
2000[79] — 32,164 136,141 231,869 — 180,715 — 12,894 — — — 56,776 —
2001[80] — 49,369 131,082 308,778 — 186,467 — 11,708 — — — 39,349 —
2002[81] — 37,578 125,538 360,267 — 178,773 — 10,942 — — — 34,711 —
2003[82] — 27,323 159,417 353,836 — 168,612 — 21,748 — — — 32,337 —
2004[83] — 19,745 181,274 345,231 — 195,529 — 22,429 — — — 23,605 —
2005[84] — 10,026 224,961 337,705 — 215,437 — 21,515 — — 1,185 12,307 —
2006[85] — — 231,752 341,110 487 229,021 — 22,468 — — 72,169 23,675 164
2007[86] — — 231,117 289,806 25,549 243,842 — 22,182 — 162 77,395 56,766 4,125
2008[87] — — 222,164 378,885 57,650 214,074 — 20,140 — 20,324 59,008 41,789 5,656
2009[88] — — 206,747 282,033 84,883 182,090 — 8,599 — 105,074 27,929 22,821 2,101
2010[89] 51,937 — 198,974 306,291 111,270 211,256 8,496 22,435 — 154,604 48,937 26,217 3,485
2011[90] 117,566 — 189,068 321,045 111,758 241,862 37,301 38,542 19,613 183,678 53,703 25,508 3,551
2012[91] 123,111 — 164,666 329,759 103,357 284,888 28,950 35,932 106,918 209,799 54,558 21,880 2,241
Data from 1998 to 2010. Figures for different body types/versions of models have been merged to create overall figures for each model.
Motorsport
Audi has competed in various forms of motorsports. Audi's tradition in motorsport began with their former company Auto Union in the 1930s. In the 1990s, Audi found success in the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in North America.
Rallying
Main article: Audi Sport WRC results
Walter Röhrl with his Quattro A2 during the 1984 Rally Portugal
In 1980, Audi released the Quattro, a four-wheel drive (4WD) turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time, because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of four-wheel drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was to become a successful car. It led its first rally before going off the road, however, the rally world had been served notice 4WD was the future. The Quattro went on to achieve much success in the World Rally Championship. It won the 1983 (Hannu Mikkola) and the 1984 (Stig Blomqvist) drivers' titles,[92] and brought Audi the manufacturers' title in 1982 and 1984.[93]
Audi Quattro S1 driven at the 2007 Rallye Deutschland
In 1984, Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated rally races in Monte Carlo and Sweden, with Audi taking all podium places, but succumbed to problems further into WRC contention. In 1985, after another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1, and helped place Audi second in the manufacturers' points. Audi also received rally honours in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the only female driver to win a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the "S1", and raced in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. The 1,439-metre (4,721 ft) climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the 4,302-metre (14,114 ft) Pikes Peak mountain in Colorado, and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39, and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. Bobby Unser used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22.
In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1, which he had retired from the WRC two years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested inline-five-cylinder turbocharged engine, with the final version generating 441 kW (600 PS; 591 bhp).[94] The engine was mated to a six-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous four-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this car; Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and Michèle Mouton. This Audi S1 started the range of Audi 'S' cars, which now represents an increased level of sports-performance equipment within the mainstream Audi model range.
In the United States
As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose to move first into America with the Trans-Am in 1988.
In 1989, Audi moved to International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GTO with the Audi 90, however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title.
Touring cars
In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in North America, Audi returned to Europe, turning first to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8, and then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast-growing Super Touring series, which are a series of national championships. Audi first entered in the French Supertourisme and Italian Superturismo. In the following year, Audi would switch to the German Super Tourenwagen Cup (known as STW), and then to British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) the year after that.
The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), having difficulty regulating the quattro four-wheel drive system, and the impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four-wheel drive cars from competing in the series in 1998,[95] but by then, Audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing.
By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their RS4 for the SCCA Speed World GT Challenge, through dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an RS6. Once again, the quattro four-wheel drive was superior, and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title, but a newcomer, Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. Namely, added ballast weights, and Champion Audi deciding to go with different tyres, and reducing the boost pressure of the turbocharger.
In 2004, after years of competing with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team Abt Racing/Christian Abt taking the 2002 title with Laurent Aïello, Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory-supported Joest Racing A4 DTM cars.
24 Hours of Le Mans
Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Le Mans prototypes
Audi R10 TDI
Audi began racing prototype sportscars in 1999, debuting at the Le Mans 24 hour. Two car concepts were developed and raced in their first season - the Audi R8R (open-cockpit 'roadster' prototype) and the Audi R8C (closed-cockpit 'coupé' GT-prototype). The R8R scored a credible podium on its racing debut at Le Mans and was the concept which Audi continued to develop into the 2000 season due to favourable rules for open-cockpit prototypes.
However, most of the competitors (such as BMW, Toyota, Mercedes and Nissan) retired at the end of 1999. The factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row with the Audi R8 (2000–2002), as well as winning every race in the American Le Mans Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as Champion Racing.
In 2003, two Bentley Speed 8s, with engines designed by Audi, and driven by Joest drivers loaned to the fellow Volkswagen Group company, competed in the GTP class, and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall, and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's podium at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third.
At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s, along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a narrower air inlet restrictor, reducing power, and an additional 50 kg (110 lb) of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2–3 seconds off pace compared to the Pescarolo–Judd. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third, while the Oreca team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GTs in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8; however, its replacement for 2006, called the Audi R10 TDI, was unveiled on 13 December 2005.
The R10 TDI employed many new and innovative features, the most notable being the twin-turbocharged direct injection diesel engine. It was first raced in the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test in preparation for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans, which it later went on to win. Audi had a win in the first diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring (the car was developed with a Diesel engine due to ACO regulations that favor diesel engines). As well as winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2006, the R10 TDI beat the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP in 2007, and in 2008, (however Peugeot won the 24h in 2009) with a podium clean-sweep (all four 908 entries retired) while breaking a distance record (set by the Porsche 917K of Martini Racing in 1971), in 2010 with the R15 TDI Plus.[96]
Audi's sports car racing success would continue with the Audi R18's victory at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi Sport Team Joest's Benoît Tréluyer earned Audi their first pole position in five years while the team's sister car locked out the front row.[97] Early accidents eliminated two of Audi's three entries, but the sole remaining Audi R18 TDI of Tréluyer, Marcel Fässler, and André Lotterer held off the trio of Peugeot 908s to claim victory by a margin of 13.8 seconds.
Results
Car Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
1 Position 4 3 1 1 4 3 3 3 1 6 3 3 Ret 1 5 2 3 4
2 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 Ret 1 Ret 2 1 2 1 1 4 3
3 Ret 2 Ret 3 Ret 5 4 Ret 4 17 1 Ret 5 3 Ret 7
4 Ret Ret 7 2 3
American Le Mans Series
Audi entered a factory racing team run by Joest Racing into the American Le Mans Series under the Audi Sport North America name in 2000. This was a successful operation with the team winning on its debut in the series at the 2000 12 Hours of Sebring. Factory-backed Audi R8s were the dominant car in ALMS taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season. In 2003, Audi sold customer cars to Champion Racing as well as continuing to race the factory Audi Sport North America team. Champion Racing won many races as a private team running Audi R8s and eventually replaced Team Joest as the Audi Sport North America between 2006 and 2008. Since 2009 Audi has not taken part in full American Le Mans Series Championships, but has competed in the series opening races at Sebring, using the 12-hour race as a test for Le Mans, and also as part of the 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season calendar.
Results
Year Manufacturer Chassis Team Rd1 Rd2 Rd3 Rd4 Rd5 Rd6 Rd7 Rd8 Rd9 Rd10 Rd11 Rd12
2000 Germany Audi R8
United States Audi Sport North America 2 20 3 Ret 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
1 6 4 3 2 Ret 1 4 2 2 1 15
2001 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 1 1 1 1 5 Ret 2 Ret Ret
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 1 1
2002 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 5 14 1 2 3 2 Ret 1 1 6
1 2 1 2 1 1 4 3 1
2003 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 2 2 1 1 7 1 2 3
United States Champion Racing 2 1 3 2 20 1 4 1 1
2004 Germany Audi R8 United Kingdom Audi Sport UK 1
2
United States Champion Racing 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
2005 Germany Audi R8 United States Champion Racing 1 1 18 1 3 Ret 3 2 7 4
2 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 1 2
2006 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 3 1
R10 Ret 1 2 1 4 7 2
1 4 1 2 1 1 1
2007 Germany Audi R10 United States Audi Sport North America 4 1 7 3 2 5 5 2 2 3 1 1
1 2 12 6 23 3 3 4 2 17 3
2008 Germany Audi R10 United States Audi Sport North America 3 Ret 2 Ret 21 2 2 2 DSQ 1 2
6 1 1 7 4 1 1 1 Ret 3 1
2009 Germany Audi R15 United States Audi Sport North America 5
4
2010 Germany Audi R15 United States Audi Sport North America 1
3
2012 Germany Audi R18 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 16
1
2
2013 Germany Audi R18 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 1
2
European Le Mans Series
Audi participated in the 2003 1000km of Le Mans which was a one-off sports car race in preparation for the 2004 European Le Mans Series. The factory team Audi Sport UK won races and the championship in the 2004 season but Audi was unable to match their sweeping success of Audi Sport North America in the American Le Mans Series, partly due to the arrival of a factory competitor in LMP1, Peugeot. The French manufacturer's 908 HDi FAP became the car to beat in the series from 2008 onwards with 20 LMP wins. However, Audi were able to secure the championship in 2008 even though Peugeot scored more race victories in the season.[98]
Results
Year Manufacturer Chassis Team Rd1 Rd2 Rd3 Rd4 Rd5
2003 Germany Audi R8 Japan Audi Sport Japan 1
2004 Germany Audi R8 United Kingdom Audi Sport UK 2 1 1 Ret
1 2 3 1
Japan Audi Sport Japan 3 4 2 2
2005 Germany Audi R8 France Team Oreca Ret 1 2 2
2008 Germany Audi R10 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 5 6 4 4 1
2 2 2 3 4
2010 Germany Audi R15 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 1 3 Ret
5 3
12
World Endurance Championship
2012
In 2012, the FIA sanctioned a World Endurance Championship which would be organised by the ACO as a continuation of the ILMC. Audi competed won the first WEC race at Sebring and followed this up with a further three successive wins, including the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi scored a final 5th victory in the 2012 WEC in Bahrain and were able to win the inaugural WEC Manufacturers' Championship.
2013
As defending champions, Audi once again entered the Audi R18 e-tron quattro chassis into the 2013 WEC and the team won the first five consecutive races, including the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans. The victory at Round 5, Circuit of the Americas, was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for Audi in Le Mans prototypes.[99] Audi secured their second consecutive WEC Manufacturers' Championship at Round 6 after taking second place and half points in the red-flagged Fuji race.[100]
2014
For the 2014 season, Audi entered a redesigned and upgraded R18 e-tron quattro which featured a 2 MJ energy recovery system. As defending champions, Audi would once again face a challenge in LMP1 from Toyota, and additionally from Porsche who returned to endurance racing after a 16-year absence. The season-opening 6hrs of Silverstone was a disaster for Audi who saw both cars retire from the race, marking the first time that an Audi car has failed to score a podium in a World Endurance Championship race.
Results
Year Manufacturer Chassis SEB
United States SPA
Belgium LMS
France SIL
United Kingdom SÃO
Brazil BHR
Bahrain FUJ
Japan SHA
China Total
points Pos.
2012 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 173 (209) 1st
Year Manufacturer Chassis SIL
United Kingdom SPA
Belgium LMS
France SÃO
Brazil COA
United States FUJ
Japan SHA
China BHR
Bahrain Total
points Pos.
2013 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 207 (207) 1st
Year Manufacturer Chassis Car SIL
United Kingdom SPA
Belgium LMS
France COA
United States FUJ
Japan SHA
China BHR
Bahrain SÃU
Brazil Total
points Pos.
2014 Germany Audi R18 e-tron quattro 1 Ret 2 1 1 5 4 4 3 244 2nd
2 Ret 5 2 2 6 5 5 5
Formula E
Audi provide factory support to Abt Sportsline in the FIA Formula E Championship, The team competed under the title of Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team in the inaugural 2014-15 Formula E season.[101] On 13 February 2014 the team announced its driver line up as Daniel Abt and World Endurance Championship driver Lucas di Grassi.[102]
Year Team Chassis Driver BEI
China PUT
Malaysia PDE
Uruguay BUE
Argentina MIA
United States LBH
United States MCO
Monaco BER
Germany MSC
Russia LON
United Kingdom Total
points Pos.
2014–15 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-Renault SRT 01E Germany Daniel Abt 10 10 15 13† 3 15 Ret 14 5 Ret 11 165 3rd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 1 2 3 Ret 9 3 2 DSQ 2 4 6
Year Team Chassis Driver BEI
China PUT
Malaysia PDE
Uruguay BUE
Argentina MEX
Mexico LBH
United States PAR
France BER
Germany LON
United Kingdom Total
points Pos.
2015–16 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-ABT Schaeffler FE01 Germany Daniel Abt 11 7 8 13 7 3 10 2 Ret 2 221 2nd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 2 1 2 3 DSQ 1 1 3 4 Ret
Year Team Chassis Driver HKG
Hong Kong MAR
Morocco BUE
Argentina MEX
Mexico MCO
Monaco PAR
France BER
Germany NYC
United States MTL
Canada Total
points Pos.
2016–17 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-ABT Schaeffler FE02 Germany Daniel Abt Ret 6 7 7 7 13† 6 4 14† Ret 4 6 248 2nd
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 2 5 3 1 2 Ret 2 3 4 5 1 7
Year Team Chassis Driver HKG
Hong Kong MAR
Morocco SAN
Chile MEX
Mexico PDE
Uruguay ROM
Italy PAR
France BER
Germany ZRH
Switzerland NYC
United States Total
points Pos.
2017–18 Germany Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team Spark-Audi e-tron FE04 Germany Daniel Abt 6 DSQ 10 Ret 1 14 4 7 1 13 2 3 264 1st
Brazil Lucas di Grassi 17 14 Ret Ret 9 2 2 2 2 1 1 2
Formula One
Audi has been linked to Formula One in recent years but has always resisted due to the company's opinion that it is not relevant to road cars, but hybrid power unit technology has been adopted into the sport, swaying the company's view and encouraging research into the program by former Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali.
Marketing
Branding
The logo used by Audi, 1985–2009
The typeface Audi Sans (used 1997–2009)
The typeface Audi Type (used since 2009)
The Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of Auto Union. The Audi emblem symbolises the amalgamation of Audi with DKW, Horch and Wanderer: the first ring from the left represents Audi, the second represents DKW, third is Horch, and the fourth and last ring Wanderer.[103][104] The design is popularly believed to have been the idea of Klaus von Oertzen, the director of sales at Wanderer – when Berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 Summer Olympics and that a form of the Olympic logo symbolized the newly established Auto Union's desire to succeed.[105] Somewhat ironically, the International Olympic Committee later sued Audi in the International Trademark Court in 1995, where they lost.[106]
The original "Audi" script, with the distinctive slanted tails on the "A" and "d" was created for the historic Audi company in 1920 by the famous graphic designer Lucian Bernhard, and was resurrected when Volkswagen revived the brand in 1965. Following the demise of NSU in 1977, less prominence was given to the four rings, in preference to the "Audi" script encased within a black (later red) ellipse, and was commonly displayed next to the Volkswagen roundel when the two brands shared a dealer network under the V.A.G banner. The ellipse (known as the Audi Oval) was phased out after 1994, when Audi formed its own independent dealer network, and prominence was given back to the four rings – at the same time Audi Sans (a derivative of Univers) was adopted as the font for all marketing materials, corporate communications and was also used in the vehicles themselves.
As part of Audi's centennial celebration in 2009, the company updated the logo, changing the font to left-aligned Audi Type, and altering the shading for the overlapping rings.[107] The revised logo was designed by Rayan Abdullah.[108]
Audi developed a Corporate Sound concept, with Audi Sound Studio designed for producing the Corporate Sound.[109] The Corporate Sound project began with sound agency Klangerfinder GmbH & Co KG and s12 GmbH. Audio samples were created in Klangerfinder's sound studio in Stuttgart, becoming part of Audi Sound Studio collection. Other Audi Sound Studio components include The Brand Music Pool, The Brand Voice.[110] Audi also developed Sound Branding Toolkit including certain instruments, sound themes, rhythm and car sounds which all are supposed to reflect the AUDI sound character.[111]
Audi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning in 1996. An updated heartbeat sound logo, developed by agencies KLANGERFINDER GmbH & Co KG of Stuttgart and S12 GmbH of Munich, was first used in 2010 in an Audi A8 commercial with the slogan The Art of Progress.[112][113]
Slogans
Audi's corporate tagline is Vorsprung durch Technik [ˈfoːɐ̯ˌʃpʁʊŋ dʊʁç ˈtɛçnɪk], meaning "Progress through Technology".[114] The German-language tagline is used in many European countries, including the United Kingdom (but not in Italy, where All'avanguardia della tecnica is used), and in other markets, such as Latin America, Oceania, Africa and parts of Asia including Japan. Originally, the American tagline was Innovation through technology, but in Canada Vorsprung durch Technik was used. Since 2007, Audi has used the slogan Truth in Engineering in the U.S.[115] However, since the Audi emissions testing scandal came to light in September 2015, this slogan was lambasted for being discordant with reality.[116] In fact, just hours after disgraced Volkswagen CEO Martin Winterkorn admitted to cheating on emissions data, an advertisement during the 2015 Primetime Emmy Awards promoted Audi's latest advances in low emissions technology with Kermit the Frog stating, "It's not that easy being green."[117]
Vorsprung durch Technik was first used in English-language advertising after Sir John Hegarty of the Bartle Bogle Hegarty advertising agency visited the Audi factory in 1982.[118] In the original British television commercials, the phrase was voiced by Geoffrey Palmer.[118] After its repeated use in advertising campaigns, the phrase found its way into popular culture, including the British comedy Only Fools and Horses, the U2 song "Zooropa"[119] and the Blur song "Parklife". Similar-sounding phrases have also been used, including as the punchline for a joke in the movie Lock, Stock, and Two Smoking Barrels and in the British TV series Peep Show.
Typography
Audi Sans (based on Univers Extended) was originally created in 1997 by Ole Schäfer for MetaDesign. MetaDesign was later commissioned for a new corporate typeface called Audi Type, designed by Paul van der Laan and Pieter van Rosmalen of Bold Monday. The font began to appear in Audi's 2009 products and marketing materials.[120]
Sponsorships
Audi sponsors Bundesliga club Bayern Munich
Audi is a strong partner of different kinds of sports. In football, long partnerships exist between Audi and domestic clubs including Bayern Munich, Hamburger SV, 1. FC Nürnberg, Hertha BSC, and Borussia Mönchengladbach and international clubs including Chelsea, Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, A.C. Milan, AFC Ajax and Perspolis. Audi also sponsors winter sports: The Audi FIS Alpine Ski World Cup is named after the company. Additionally, Audi supports the German Ski Association (DSV) as well as the alpine skiing national teams of Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, France, Liechtenstein, Italy, Austria and the U.S. For almost two decades, Audi fosters golf sport: for example with the Audi quattro Cup and the HypoVereinsbank Ladies German Open presented by Audi. In sailing, Audi is engaged in the Medcup regatta and supports the team Luna Rossa during the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series and also is the primary sponsor of the Melges 20 sailboat. Further, Audi sponsors the regional teams ERC Ingolstadt (hockey) and FC Ingolstadt 04 (soccer).[121] In 2009, the year of Audi's 100th anniversary, the company organized the Audi Cup for the first time.[122] Audi also sponsor the New York Yankees as well. In October 2010 they agreed to a three sponsorship year-deal with Everton.[123] Audi also sponsors the England Polo Team and holds the Audi Polo Awards.[124][125]
Marvel Cinematic Universe
Since the start of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Audi signed a deal to sponsor, promote and provide vehicles for several films. So far these have been, Iron Man, Iron Man 2, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Endgame and Spider-Man: Far From Home.[126] The R8 supercar became the personal vehicle for Tony Stark (played by Robert Downey Jr.) for six of these films.[127] The e-tron vehicles were promoted in Endgame and Far From Home. Several commercials were co-produced by Marvel and Audi to promote several new concepts and some of the latest vehicles such as the A8, SQ7 and the e-Tron fleet.[128][129][130]
Multitronic campaign
Audi Centre Sydney, Zetland, New South Wales, Australia
In 2001, Audi promoted the new multitronic continuously variable transmission with television commercials throughout Europe, featuring an impersonator of musician and actor Elvis Presley.[131][132] A prototypical dashboard figure – later named "Wackel-Elvis" ("Wobble Elvis" or "Wobbly Elvis") – appeared in the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an Audi equipped with the multitronic transmission. The dashboard figure was originally intended for use in the commercials only, but after they aired the demand for Wackel-Elvis fans grew among fans and the figure was mass-produced in China and marketed by Audi in their factory outlet store.[133]
Audi TDI
As part of Audi's attempt to promote its Diesel technology in 2009, the company began Audi Mileage Marathon. The driving tour featured a fleet of 23 Audi TDI vehicles from 4 models (Audi Q7 3.0 TDI, Audi Q5 3.0 TDI, Audi A4 3.0 TDI, Audi A3 Sportback 2.0 TDI with S tronic transmission) travelling across the American continent from New York to Los Angeles, passing major cities like Chicago, Dallas and Las Vegas during the 13 daily stages, as well as natural wonders including the Rocky Mountains, Death Valley and the Grand Canyon.[134]
Audi e-tron
The next phase of technology Audi is developing is the e-tron electric drive powertrain system. They have shown several concept cars as of March 2010, each with different levels of size and performance. The original e-tron concept shown at the 2009 Frankfurt motor show is based on the platform of the R8 and has been scheduled for limited production. Power is provided by electric motors at all four wheels. The second concept was shown at the 2010 Detroit Motor Show. Power is provided by two electric motors at the rear axle. This concept is also considered to be the direction for a future mid-engined gas-powered 2-seat performance coupe. The Audi A1 e-tron concept, based on the Audi A1 production model, is a hybrid vehicle with a range extending Wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is depleted. It is the only concept of the three to have range-extending capability. The car is powered through the front wheels, always using electric power.
It is all set to be displayed at the Auto Expo 2012 in New Delhi, India, from 5 January. Powered by a 1.4 litre engine, and can cover a distance up to 54 km s on a single charge. The e-tron was also shown in the 2013 blockbuster film Iron Man 3 and was driven by Tony Stark (Iron Man).
In video games
Audi has supported the European version of PlayStation Home, the PlayStation 3's online community-based service, by releasing a dedicated Home space. Audi is the first carmaker to develop such a space for Home. On 17 December 2009, Audi released two spaces; the Audi Home Terminal and the Audi Vertical Run.[135] The Audi Home Terminal features an Audi TV channel delivering video content, an Internet Browser feature, and a view of a city. The Audi Vertical Run is where users can access the mini-game Vertical Run, a futuristic mini-game featuring Audi's e-tron concept. Players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the Audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the Audi Space. In both the Home Terminal and Vertical Run spaces, there are teleports where users can teleport back and forth between the two spaces. Audi had stated that additional content would be added in 2010.[needs update][136] On 31 March 2015 Sony shutdown the PlayStation Home service rendering all content for it inaccessible.[137]
See also
DKW
Horch
Wanderer (company)
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References
Clarke, R.M., ed. (1986). On Audi & Auto Union 1952-1980. Road & Track Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 0948207876.
——————, ed. (1986). On Audi & Auto Union 1980-1986. Road & Track Series. Cobham, Surrey, UK: Brooklands Books. ISBN 0948207884.
Oswald, Werner (2001). Deutsche Autos [German Cars] (in German). Band [Volume] 2: 1920–1945. Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. ISBN 3613021706.
External links
Media related to Audi at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
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Categories: AudiCompanies based in Baden-WürttembergCar manufacturers of GermanyCompanies based in BavariaCompanies based in IngolstadtCompanies formerly listed on the Frankfurt Stock ExchangeVehicle manufacturing companies established in 1909Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1939Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1965Re-established companiesGerman brandsIngolstadtLuxury motor vehicle manufacturersSaxonySports car manufacturersVolkswagen GroupCar brandsGerman companies established in 1909
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BMWBMW
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the German motor vehicle manufacturer. For other uses, see BMW (disambiguation).
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG
BMW logo (gray).svg
Logo since 2020
2014 BMW.JPG
BMW Headquarters in Munich, Germany
Type Public (Aktiengesellschaft)
Traded as FWB: BMW
OTC Pink: BMWYY
DAX Component
Industry Automotive
Predecessors Rapp Motorenwerke
Bayerische Flugzeugwerke
Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach
Founded 7 March 1916; 105 years ago
Founders
Camillo Castiglioni
Franz Josef Popp
Karl Rapp
Headquarters Munich, Germany
Area served Worldwide
Key people Oliver Zipse, Chairman of the Board of Management
Norbert Reithofer, Chairman of the Supervisory Board
Products
CarsMotorcycles
Production output
Decrease 2,255,637 cars (2020)
Decrease 168,104 motorcycles (2020)[1]
Brands
Automobiles
BMW
BMW i
BMW M
Mini
Rolls-Royce
Motorcycles
BMW Motorrad
Services Financial services
Revenue Decrease €98.990 billion (2020)[1]
Operating income Decrease €5.222 billion (2020)[1]
Net income Decrease €3.857 billion (2020)[1]
Total assets Decrease €216.658 billion (2020)[1]
Total equity Increase €61.520 billion (2020)[1]
Owners Public float (50%);
Stefan Quandt (29%),
Susanne Klatten (21%)
Number of employees 133,778 (2019)[2]
Website bmw.com
bmwgroup.com
Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, commonly referred to as BMW (German pronunciation: [ˌbeːʔɛmˈveː] (audio speaker iconlisten)), is a German multinational corporate manufacturer of luxury vehicles and motorcycles headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. The corporation was founded in 1916 as a manufacturer of aircraft engines, which it produced from 1917 until 1918 and again from 1933 to 1945.
Automobiles are marketed under the brands BMW, Mini and Rolls-Royce, and motorcycles are marketed under the brand BMW Motorrad. In 2017, BMW was the world's fourteenth-largest producer of motor vehicles, with 2,279,503 vehicles produced.[3] The company has significant motorsport history, especially in touring cars, Formula 1, sports cars and the Isle of Man TT.
BMW is headquartered in Munich and produces motor vehicles in Germany, Brazil, China, India, Mexico, the Netherlands, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The Quandt family is a long-term shareholder of the company (with the remaining shares owned by public float), following brothers Herbert and Harald Quandt's investments in 1959 which saved the company from bankruptcy.
Contents
1 History
2 Branding
2.1 Company name
2.2 Logo
2.3 Slogan
3 Finances
4 Motorcycles
5 Automobiles
5.1 Current models
5.2 Naming convention for models
6 Motorsport
7 Involvement in the arts
7.1 Art Cars
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Film
7.4 Visual arts
8 Production and sales
9 Recalls
10 Industry collaboration
11 Sponsorships
12 Environmental record
13 Car-sharing services
14 Overseas subsidiaries
14.1 Production facilities
14.2 Complete knock-down assembly facilities
14.3 Vehicle importers
15 See also
16 References
17 Further reading
18 External links
History
Main article: History of BMW
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Bayerische Flugzeugwerke AG was formed in 1916. This company was renamed to Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW) in 1922. However the name BMW dates back to 1913, when the original company to use the name was founded by Karl Rapp (initially as Rapp Motorenwerke GmbH). BMW's first product was a straight-six aircraft engine called the BMW IIIa, designed in the spring of 1917 by engineer Max Friz. Following the end of World War I, BMW remained in business by producing motorcycle engines, farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. The company produced its first motorcycle, the BMW R 32 in 1923.
BMW became an automobile manufacturer in 1928 when it purchased Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach, which, at the time, built Austin Sevens under licence under the Dixi marque.[4] The first car sold as a BMW was a rebadged Dixi called the BMW 3/15, following BMW's acquisition of the car manufacturer Automobilwerk Eisenach. Throughout the 1930s, BMW expanded its range into sports cars and larger luxury cars.
Aircraft engines, motorcycles, and automobiles would be BMW's main products until World War II. During the war, against the wishes of its director Franz Josef Popp,[citation needed] BMW concentrated on aircraft engine production using as many as 40,000 slave laborers.[5] These consisted primarily of prisoners from concentration camps, most prominently Dachau. Motorcycles remained as a side-line and automobile manufacture ceased altogether.
BMW's factories were heavily bombed during the war and its remaining West German facilities were banned from producing motor vehicles or aircraft after the war. Again, the company survived by making pots, pans, and bicycles. In 1948, BMW restarted motorcycle production. BMW resumed car production in Bavaria in 1952 with the BMW 501 luxury saloon. The range of cars was expanded in 1955, through the production of the cheaper Isetta microcar under licence. Slow sales of luxury cars and small profit margins from microcars meant BMW was in serious financial trouble and in 1959 the company was nearly taken over by rival Daimler-Benz.
A large investment in BMW by Herbert Quandt and Harald Quandt resulted in the company surviving as a separate entity. The Quandt's father, Günther Quandt, was a well-known German industrialist. Quandt joined the Nazi party in 1933 and made a fortune arming the German Wehrmacht, manufacturing weapons and batteries.[6] Many of his enterprises were appropriated from Jewish owners under duress with minimal compensation. At least three of his enterprises made extensive use of slave laborers, as many as 50,000 in all.[7] One of his battery factories had its own on-site concentration camp, complete with gallows. Life expectancy for laborers was six months.[7] While Quandt and BMW were not directly connected during the war, funds amassed in the Nazi era by his father allowed Herbert Quandt to buy BMW.[5]
The BMW 700 was successful and assisted in the company's recovery.
The 1962 introduction of the BMW New Class compact sedans was the beginning of BMW's reputation as a leading manufacturer of sport-oriented cars. Throughout the 1960s, BMW expanded its range by adding coupe and luxury sedan models. The BMW 5 Series mid-size sedan range was introduced in 1972, followed by the BMW 3 Series compact sedans in 1975, the BMW 6 Series luxury coupes in 1976 and the BMW 7 Series large luxury sedans in 1978.
The BMW M division released its first road car, a mid-engine supercar, in 1978. This was followed by the BMW M5 in 1984 and the BMW M3 in 1986. Also in 1986, BMW introduced its first V12 engine in the 750i luxury sedan.
The company purchased the Rover Group in 1994, however the takeover was not successful and was causing BMW large financial losses. In 2000, BMW sold off most of the Rover brands, retaining only the Mini brand.
In 1998, BMW also acquired the rights to the Rolls Royce brand from Vickers Plc.
The 1995 BMW Z3 expanded the line-up to include a mass-production two-seat roadster and the 1999 BMW X5 was the company's entry into the SUV market.
The first modern mass-produced turbocharged petrol engine was introduced in 2006, (from 1973 to 1975, BMW built 1672 units of a turbocharged M10 engine for the BMW 2002 turbo),[8] with most engines switching over to turbocharging over the 2010s. The first hybrid BMW was the 2010 BMW ActiveHybrid 7, and BMW's first mass-production electric car was the BMW i3 city car, which was released in 2013, (from 1968 to 1972, BMW built two battery-electric BMW 1602 Elektro saloons for the 1972 Olympic Games).[9] After many years of establishing a reputation for sporting rear-wheel drive cars, BMW's first front-wheel drive car was the 2014 BMW 2 Series Active Tourer multi-purpose vehicle (MPV).
In January 2021, BMW announced that its sales in 2020 fell by 8.4% due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictions. However, in the fourth quarter of 2020, BMW witnessed a rise of 3.2% of its customers' demands.[10]
Branding
BMW badge on a 1931 Dixi
Flag of Bavaria
Company name
The name BMW is an abbreviation for Bayerische Motoren Werke (German pronunciation: [ˈbaɪ̯ʁɪʃə mɔˈtʰɔʁn̩ ˈvɛɐ̯kə]). This name is grammatically incorrect (in German, compound words must not contain spaces), which is why the name's grammatically correct form Bayerische Motorenwerke (German pronunciation: [ˈbaɪ̯ʁɪʃə mɔˈtʰɔʁn̩vɛɐ̯kə] (audio speaker iconlisten)) has been used in several publications and advertisements in the past.[11][12] Bayerische Motorenwerke translates into English as Bavarian Motor Works.[13] The suffix AG, short for Aktiengesellschaft, signifies an incorporated entity which is owned by shareholders, thus akin to "Inc." (US) or PLC, "Public Limited Company" (UK).
The terms Beemer, Bimmer and Bee-em are sometimes used as slang for BMW in the English language[14][15] and are sometimes used interchangeably for cars and motorcycles.[16][17][18]
Logo
The circular blue and white BMW logo or roundel evolved from the circular Rapp Motorenwerke company logo, which featured a black ring bearing the company name surrounding the company logo,[19] on a plinth a horse's head couped.[20]
BMW retained Rapp's black ring inscribed with the company name, but adopted as the central element a circular escutcheon bearing a quasi-heraldic reference to the coat of arms (and flag) of the Free State of Bavaria (as the state of their origin was named after 1918), being the arms of the House of Wittelsbach, Dukes and Kings of Bavaria.[19] However, as the local law regarding trademarks forbade the use of state coats of arms or other symbols of sovereignty on commercial logos, the design was sufficiently differentiated to comply, but retained the tinctures azure (blue) and argent (white).[21][19][22]
The current iteration of the logo was introduced in 2020,[23] removing 3D effects that had been used in renderings of the logo, and also removing the black outline encircling the rondel. The logo will be used on BMW's branding but will not be used on vehicles.[24][25]
Logo used in vehicles
The logo on a BMW car
Logo used for publicity purposes since March 2020
The origin of the logo as a portrayal of the movement of an aircraft propeller, the BMW logo with the white blades seeming to cut through a blue sky, is a myth which sprang from a 1929 BMW advertisement depicting the BMW emblem overlaid on a rotating propeller, with the quarters defined by strobe-light effect, a promotion of an aircraft engine then being built by BMW under license from Pratt & Whitney.[19]
For a long time, BMW made little effort to correct the myth that the BMW badge is a propeller
— Fred Jakobs, Archive Director, BMW Group Classic, [19]
It is well established that this propeller portrayal was first used in a BMW advertisement in 1929 – twelve years after the logo was created – so this is not the true origin of the logo.[26]
Slogan
The slogan 'The Ultimate Driving Machine' was first used in North America in 1974.[27][28] In 2010, this long-lived campaign was mostly supplanted by a campaign intended to make the brand more approachable and to better appeal to women, 'Joy'. By 2012 BMW had returned to 'The Ultimate Driving Machine'.[29]
Finances
For the fiscal year 2017, BMW reported earnings of EUR 8.620 billion, with an annual revenue of EUR 98.678 billion, an increase of 4.8% over the previous fiscal cycle.[30] BMW's shares traded at over €77 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at US 55.3 billion in November 2018.[31]
Year Revenue
in bn. EUR€ Net income
in bn. EUR€ Total Assets
in bn. EUR€ Employees
2011 68.821 4.881 123.429 100,306
2012 76.848 5.096 131.850 105,876
2013 76.058 5.314 138.368 110,351
2014 80.401 5.798 154.803 116,324
2015 92.175 6.369 172.174 122,244
2016 94.163 6.863 188.535 124,729
2017 98.678 8.620 193.483 129,932
2018 97.480 7.117 208.980 134,682
2019 104.210 4.915 241.663 133,778
Motorcycles
See also: BMW Motorrad and History of BMW motorcycles
The R32 motorcycle, the first BMW motor vehicle, at the BMW Museum in Munich
The 2015 BMW R1200RT
BMW began production of motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I.[32] Its motorcycle brand is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle after the failed Helios and Flink, was the "R32" in 1923, though production originally began in 1921.[33] This had a "boxer" twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air-flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single-cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMW's are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series.
The entire BMW Motorcycle production has, since 1969, been located at the company's Berlin-Spandau factory.
During the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a motor-driven sidecar attached, combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off-road.[34][35]
In 1982, came the K Series, shaft drive but water-cooled and with either three or four cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines.
In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1,170 cc (71 cu in) and enhanced performance to 75 kW (101 hp) for the R1200GS, compared to 63 kW (84 hp) of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing 73 and 91 kW (98 and 122 hp), respectively.
In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It had an engine producing 125 kW (168 hp), derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team, and is lighter than previous K models. Innovations include electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork that BMW calls Duolever.
BMW introduced anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles paved the way for the introduction of electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology later in the 2007 model year.
BMW has been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then they switched to an Earles fork, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (compare with the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm). Some BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles fork, the Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking.
BMW Group, on 31 January 2013, announced that Pierer Industrie AG has bought Husqvarna Motorcycles for an undisclosed amount, which will not be revealed by either party in the future. The company is headed by Stephan Pierer (CEO of KTM). Pierer Industrie AG is 51% owner of KTM and 100% owner of Husqvarna.
In September 2018, BMW unveiled a new self-driving motorcycle with BMW Motorrad with a goal of using the technology to help improve road safety.[36] The design of the bike was inspired by the company's BMW R1200 GS model.[37]
Automobiles
Current models
See also: List of BMW vehicles, Mini (marque), and Rolls-Royce Motor Cars
The current model lines of BMW cars are:
1 Series five-door hatchbacks (model code F40). A four-door sedan variant (model code F52) is also sold in China and Mexico.[38]
2 Series two-door coupes (model code G42), "Active Tourer" five-seat MPVs (F45) and "Gran Tourer" seven-seat MPVs (F46), and four-door "Gran Coupe" fastback (model code F44).
3 Series four-door sedans (model code G20) and five-door station wagons (G21).
4 Series two-door coupes (model code G22), two-door convertibles (model code G23) and five-door "Gran Coupe" fastbacks (model code G24).
5 Series four-door sedans (model code G30) and five-door station wagons (G31). A long-wheelbase sedan variant (G38) is also sold in China.
6 Series "Gran Turismo" five-door coupes (model code G32)
7 Series four-door sedans (model code G11) and long-wheelbase four-door sedans (model code G12).
8 Series two-door coupes (model code G14), two-door convertibles (G15) and "Gran Coupe" four-door fastbacks (G16).
1 Series (F40)
2 Series (F44)
3 Series (G20)
4 Series (G22)
5 Series (G30)
6 Series (G32)
7 Series (G12)
8 Series (G15)
The current model lines of the X Series SUVs and crossovers are:
X1 (F48)
X2 (F39)
X3 (G01)
X4 (G02)
X5 (G05)
X6 (G06)
X7 (G07)
X1 (F48)
X2 (F39)
X3 (G01)
X4 (G02)
X5 (G05)
X6 (G06)
X7 (G07)
The current model line of the Z Series two-door roadsters is the Z4 (model code G29).
Z4 (G29)
i models
Main article: BMW i
All-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles are sold under the BMW i sub-brand. The current model range consists of:
i3 five-door B-segment (supermini) hatchback, powered by an electric motor (with optional REx petrol engine)
i3
BMW announced the launch of two new BMW i all-electric models, the BMW iX3 SUV by late 2020, and the BMW i4 four-door sedan in 2021.[39][40]
In addition, several plug-in hybrid models built on existing platforms have been marketed as iPerformance models. Examples include the 225xe using a 1.5 L three-cylinder turbocharged petrol engine with an electric motor, the 330e/530e using a 2.0 L four-cylinder engine with an electric motor, and the 740e using a 2.0 litre turbocharged petrol engine with an electric motor.[41] Also, crossover and SUV plug-in hybrid models have been released using i technology: X1 xDrive25e, X2 xDrive25e, X3 xDrive30e, and X5 xDrive40e.[42]
M models
Main article: BMW M
The BMW M GmbH subsidiary (called BMW Motorsport GmbH until 1993) has high-performance versions of various BMW models since 1978.
The recent model range consists of:
M2 two-door coupe
M3 four-door sedan
M4 two-door coupe/convertible
M5 four-door sedan
M8 two-door coupe/convertible and four-door sedan
X3 M five-door compact SUV[43]
X4 M five-door coupe-styled compact SUV[43]
X5 M five-door SUV[44]
X6 M five-door coupe-styled SUV[45]
M2
M3
M4
M5
M8
X3 M
X4 M
X5 M
X6 M
The letter "M" is also often used in the marketing of BMW's regular models, for example the F20 M140i model, the G11 M760Li model and various optional extras called "M Sport", "M Performance" or similar.
Naming convention for models
Main article: List of BMW vehicles § Nomenclature
Motorsport
Main article: BMW in motorsport
BMW has a long history of motorsport activities, including:
Touring cars, such as DTM, WTCC, ETCC and BTCC
Formula One
Endurance racing, such as 24 Hours Nürburgring, 24 Hours of Le Mans, 24 Hours of Daytona and Spa 24 Hours
Isle of Man TT
Dakar Rally
American Le Mans Series
IMSA SportsCar Championship
Formula BMW – a junior racing Formula category.
Formula Two
Formula E
2016 BMW M4 DTM
2016 BMW M6 GT3
2016 BMW S1000RR
Involvement in the arts
Art Cars
Main article: BMW Art Car
In 1975, sculptor Alexander Calder was commissioned to paint the BMW 3.0 CSL racing car driven by Hervé Poulain at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, which became the first in the series of BMW Art Cars. Since Calder's work of art, many other renowned artists throughout the world have created BMW Art Cars, including David Hockney, Jenny Holzer, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Rauschenberg, Frank Stella, and Andy Warhol.[46] To date, a total of 19 BMW Art Cars, based on both racing and regular production vehicles, have been created.
1975 3.0 CSL Art Car by Alexander Calder
1979 M1 Art Car by Andy Warhol
Architecture
BMW Headquarters
The global BMW Headquarters in Munich represents the cylinder head of a 4-cylinder engine. It was designed by Karl Schwanzer and was completed in 1972. The building has become a European icon[46] and was declared a protected historic building in 1999. The main tower consists of four vertical cylinders standing next to and across from each other. Each cylinder is divided horizontally in its center by a mold in the facade. Notably, these cylinders do not stand on the ground; they are suspended on a central support tower.
BMW Museum is a futuristic cauldron-shaped building, which was also designed by Karl Schwanzer and opened in 1972.[47] The interior has a spiral theme and the roof is a 40-metre diameter BMW logo.
BMW Welt, the company's exhibition space in Munich, was designed by Coop Himmelb(l)au and opened in 2007. It includes a showroom and lifting platforms where a customer's new car is theatrically unveiled to the customer.[48]
BMW Museum
BMW Welt
Film
In 2001 and 2002, BMW produced a series of 8 short films called The Hire, which had plots based around BMW models being driven to extremes by Clive Owen.[49] The directors for The Hire included Guy Ritchie, John Woo, John Frankenheimer and Ang Lee. In 2016, a ninth film in the series was released.
The 2006 "BMW Performance Series" was a marketing event geared to attract black car buyers. It consisted of seven concerts by jazz musician Mike Phillips, and screenings of films by black filmmakers.[50][51]
Visual arts
BMW was the principal sponsor of the 1998 The Art of the Motorcycle exhibition at various Guggenheim museums, though the financial relationship between BMW and the Guggenheim Foundation was criticised in many quarters.[52][53]
In 2012, BMW began sponsoring Independent Collectors production of the BMW Art Guide, which is the first global guide to private and publicly accessible collections of contemporary art worldwide.[54] The fourth edition, released in 2016, features 256 collections from 43 countries.[55]
Production and sales
Spot welding 3 Series bodies in Leipzig, Germany
BMW produces complete automobiles in the following countries:
Germany: Munich, Dingolfing, Regensburg and Leipzig
Austria: Graz[56]
United States: Spartanburg[57]
Mexico: San Luis Potosí[58]
South Africa: Rosslyn
India: Chennai
China: Shenyang
Brazil: Araquari
BMW also has local assembly operation using complete knock-down (CKD) components in Thailand, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia and India.[59]
In the UK, BMW has a Mini factory near Oxford, plants in Swindon and Hams Hall, and Rolls Royce vehicle assembly at Goodwood. In 2020, these facilities were shut down for the period from March 23 to April 17 due to the coronavirus outbreak.[60]
The BMW group (including Mini and Rolls-Royce) produced 1,366,838 automobiles in 2006 and then 1,481,253 automobiles in 2010.[61][62] BMW Motorcycles are being produced at the company's Berlin factory, which earlier had produced aircraft engines for Siemens.
By 2011, about 56% of BMW-brand vehicles produced are powered by petrol engines and the remaining 44% are powered by diesel engines. Of those petrol vehicles, about 27% are four-cylinder models and about nine percent are eight-cylinder models.[63] On average, 9,000 vehicles per day exit BMW plants, and 63% are transported by rail.[64]
Annual production since 2005, according to BMW's annual reports:[62]
Year BMW MINI Rolls-Royce Motorcycle*
2005 1,122,308 200,119 692 92,013
2006 1,179,317 186,674 847 103,759
2007 1,302,774 237,700 1,029 104,396
2008 1,203,482 235,019 1,417 118,452
2009 1,043,829 213,670 918 93,243
2010 1,236,989 241,043 3,221 112,271
2011 1,440,315 294,120 3,725 110,360
2012 1,547,057 311,490 3,279 113,811
2013 1,699,835 303,177 3,354 110,127
2014 1,838,268 322,803 4,495 133,615
2015 1,933,647 342,008 3,848 151,004
2016 2,002,997 352,580 4,179 145,555
2017 2,123,947 378,486 3,308 185,682
2018 2,168,496 368,685 4,353 162,687
2019 2,205,841 352,729 5,455 187,116
Annual sales since 2005, according to BMW's annual reports:
Year BMW MINI Rolls-Royce Motorcycle*
2005 1,126,768 200,428 797 97,474
2006 1,185,089 188,077 805 100,064
2007 1,276,793 222,875 1,010 102,467
2008 1,202,239 232,425 1,212 115,196
2009 1,068,770 216,538 1,002 100,358
2010 1,224,280 234,175 2,711 110,113
2011 1,380,384 285,060 3,538 113,572
2012 1,540,085 301,525 3,575 117,109
2013 1,655,138 305,030 3,630 115,215**
2014 1,811,719 302,183 4,063 123,495
2015 1,905,234 338,466 3,785 136,963
2016 2,003,359 360,233 4,011 145,032
2017 2,088,283 371,881 3,362 164,153
2018 2,114,963 364,135 4,194 165,566
2019 2,185,793 347,474 5,100 175,162
* In 2008–2012, motorcycle productions figures include Husqvarna models.
** Excluding Husqvarna, sales volume up to 2013: 59,776 units.
Recalls
In November 2016, BMW recalled 136,000 2007–2012 model year U.S. cars for fuel pump wiring problems possibly resulting in fuel leak and engine stalling or restarting issues.[65]
In 2018, BMW recalled 106,000 diesel vehicles in South Korea with a defective exhaust gas recirculation module, which caused 39 engine fires. The recall was then expanded to 324,000 more cars in Europe.[66] Following the recall in South Korea, the government banned cars which had not yet been inspected from driving on public roads.[67] This affected up to 25% of the recalled cars, where the owners had been notified but the cars had not yet been inspected. BMW is reported to have been aware since 2016 that more than 4% of the affected cars in South Korea had experienced failures in the EGR coolers,[68] leading to approximately 20 owners suing the company.[69]
Industry collaboration
BMW has collaborated with other car manufacturers on the following occasions:
McLaren Automotive: BMW designed and produced the V12 engine that powered the McLaren F1.[70][71]
Peugeot and Citroën: Joint production of four-cylinder petrol engines, beginning in 2004.[72]
Daimler Benz: Joint venture to produce the hybrid drivetrain components used in the ActiveHybrid 7.[73][74] Development of automated driving technology.[75]
Toyota: Three-part agreement in 2013 to jointly develop fuel cell technology, develop a joint platform for a sports car (for the 2018 BMW Z4 (G29) and Toyota Supra) and research lithium-air batteries.[76][77][78]
Audi and Mercedes: Joint purchase of Nokia's Here WeGo (formerly Here Maps) in 2015.[79]
In 2018, Horizn Studios collaborated with BMW to launch special luggage editions.[80]
Sponsorships
BMW sponsor car at the London 2012 Olympics
BMW made a six-year sponsorship deal with the United States Olympic Committee in July 2010.[81][82]
In golf, BMW has sponsored various events,[83] including the PGA Championship since 2007,[84][85] the Italian Open from 2009 to 2012, the BMW Masters in China from 2012 to 2015[86][87] and the BMW International Open in Munich since 1989.[88]
In rugby, BMW sponsored the South Africa national rugby union team from 2011 to 2015.[89][90]
Environmental record
BMW is a charter member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Environmental Achievement Track, which recognizes companies for their environmental stewardship and performance.[91] It is also a member of the South Carolina Environmental Excellence Program.[92]
Since 1999, BMW has been named the world's most sustainable automotive company every year by the Dow Jones Sustainability Index.[93] The BMW Group is one of three automotive companies to be featured every year in the index.[94] In 2001, the BMW Group committed itself to the United Nations Environment Programme, the UN Global Compact and the Cleaner Production Declaration. It was also the first company in the automotive industry to appoint an environmental officer, in 1973.[95] BMW is a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development.[96]
In 2012, BMW was the highest automotive company in the Carbon Disclosure Project's Global 500 list, with a score of 99 out of 100.[97][98] The BMW Group was rated the most sustainable DAX 30 company by Sustainalytics in 2012.[99]
To reduce vehicle emissions, BMW is improving the efficiency of existing fossil-fuel powered models, while researching electric power, hybrid power and hydrogen for future models.[100]
During the first quarter of 2018, BMW sold 26,858 Electrified Vehicles (EVs, PHEVs, & Hybrids).[101]
Car-sharing services
DriveNow was a joint-venture between BMW and Sixt that operated from in Europe from 2011 until 2019. By December 2012,[102] DriveNow operated over 1,000 vehicles, in five cities and with approximately 60,000 customers.[103]
In 2012, the BMW-owned subsidiary Alphabet began a corporate car-sharing service in Europe called AlphaCity.[104][105]
The ReachNow car-sharing service was launched in Seattle in April 2016.[106] ReachNow currently operates in Seattle, Portland and Brooklyn.
In 2018, BMW announced the launching of a pilot car subscription service for the United States called Access by BMW (its first one for the country), in Nashville, Tennessee. In January 2021, the company said that Access by BMW was "suspended".[107]
Overseas subsidiaries
Production facilities
China
Main article: BMW Brilliance
The first BMW production facility in China was opened in 2004, as a result of a joint venture between BMW and Brilliance Auto.[108][109] The plant was opened in the Shenyang industrial area and produces 3 Series and 5 Series models for the Chinese market.[110][111] In 2012, a second factory was opened in Shenyang.[112]
Between January and November 2014, BMW sold 415,200 vehicles in China, through a network of over 440 BMW stores and 100 Mini stores.[113]
On 13 December 2021, BMW announced to be moving the production of the X5 from the United States to China.[114]
Hungary
On 31 July 2018, BMW announced to build 1 billion euro car factory in Hungary. The plant, to be built near Debrecen, will have a production capacity of 150,000 cars a year.[115]
Mexico
In July 2014, BMW announced it was establishing a plant in Mexico, in the city and state of San Luis Potosi involving an investment of $1 billion. The plant will employ 1,500 people, and produce 150,000 cars annually.[116]
Netherlands
The Mini Convertible, Mini Countryman and BMW X1 are currently produced in the Netherlands at the VDL Nedcar factory in Born.[117][118] Long-term orders for the Mini Countryman ended in 2020.[119]
South Africa
Main article: BMW South Africa
BMWs have been assembled in South Africa since 1968,[120] when Praetor Monteerders' plant was opened in Rosslyn, near Pretoria. BMW initially bought shares in the company, before fully acquiring it in 1975; in so doing, the company became BMW South Africa, the first wholly owned subsidiary of BMW to be established outside Germany. Unlike United States manufacturers, such as Ford and GM, which divested from the country in the 1980s, BMW retained full ownership of its operations in South Africa.
Following the end of apartheid in 1994, and the lowering of import tariffs, BMW South Africa ended local production of the 5 Series and 7 Series, in order to concentrate on production of the 3 Series for the export market. South African–built BMWs are now exported to right hand drive markets including Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1997, BMW South Africa has produced vehicles in left-hand drive for export to Taiwan, the United States and Iran, as well as South America.
Three unique models that BMW Motorsport created for the South African market were the E23 M745i (1983), which used the M88 engine from the BMW M1, the BMW 333i (1986), which added a six-cylinder 3.2-litre M30 engine to the E30,[121] and the E30 BMW 325is (1989) which was powered by an Alpina-derived 2.7-litre engine.
The plant code (position 11 in the VIN) for South African built models is "N".[122]
United States
BMW Zentrum museum in Spartanburg, South Carolina
Main article: BMW in the United States
BMW cars have been officially sold in the United States since 1956[123] and manufactured in the United States since 1994.[124] The first BMW dealership in the United States opened in 1975.[125] In 2016, BMW was the twelfth highest selling brand in the United States.[126]
The manufacturing plant in Greer, South Carolina has the highest production of the BMW plants worldwide,[127] currently producing approximately 1,500 vehicles per day.[128] The models produced at the Spartanburg plant are the X3, X4, X6 and X7 SUV models. The X5 model's production was announced to be moving to China in December 2021.[114]
In addition to the South Carolina manufacturing facility, BMW's North American companies include sales, marketing, design, and financial services operations in the United States, Mexico, Canada and Latin America.
Complete knock-down assembly facilities
Brazil
On 9 October 2014, BMW's new complete knock-down (CKD) assembly plant in Araquari, assembled its first car— an F30 3 Series.[129][130]
The cars assembled at Araquari are the F20 1 Series, F30 3 Series, F48 X1, F25 X3 and Mini Countryman.[131]
Egypt
Bavarian Auto Group became the importer of the BMW and Mini brands in 2003.
Since 2005, the 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1 and X3 models sold in Egypt are assembled from complete knock-down components at the BMW plant in 6th of October City.[131]
India
Main article: BMW India
BMW India was established in 2006 as a sales subsidiary with a head office located in Gurugram.
A BMW complete knock-down assembly plant was opened in Chennai in 2007, assembling Indian-market 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1, X3, X5, Mini Countryman and motorcycle models.[131][132] The 20 Million Euro plant aims to produce 1,700 cars per year.
Russia
Russian-market 3 Series and 5 Series cars are assembled from complete knock-down components in Kaliningrad beginning in 1999.[133]
Malaysia
BMW's complete knock-down (CKD) assembly plant in Kedah. Assembled Malaysia-market 1 Series, 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1, X3, X4, X5, X6 and Mini Countryman since 2008.[134]
Vehicle importers
Canada
BMW's first dealership in Canada, located in Ottawa, was opened in 1969.[135] In 1986, BMW established a head office in Canada.[136]
BMW sold 28,149 vehicles in Canada in 2008.[137]
Japan
BMW Japan Corp, a wholly owned subsidiary, imports and distributes BMW vehicles in Japan.[138]
Philippines
BMW Philippines, an owned subsidiary of San Miguel Corporation, The Official Importer and Distributor of BMW in the Philippines.[139]
BMW sold 920 vehicles in the Philippines in 2019.[140]
South Korea
BMW Korea imports BMW vehicles in South Korea with more than fifty service centers to fully accomplish to South Korean customers. Also, BMW Korea has its own driving center in Incheon.[141]
See also
flag Germany portal
BMW Group Classic
List of BMW engines
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Further reading
Grunert, Manfred; Triebe, Florian (2006). Das Unternehmen BMW seit 1916 [The BMW Company since 1916] (in German). Königswinter, Germany: Heel Verlag. ISBN 3932169468.
Hodges, David (2000). BMW. Suttons Photographic History of Transport series. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0750921447.
Kiley, David (2004). Driven: Inside BMW, the Most Admired Car Company in the World. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-26920-5.
Lewandowski, Jürgen (2006). BMW: Typen und Geschichte [BMW: Types and History] (in German) (3rd ed.). Bielefeld: Delius Klasing. ISBN 3768814203.
Lewin, Tony (2022). BMW Century (2nd ed.). Beverly, MA, USA: Motorbooks. ISBN 9780760373774.
Noakes, Andrew (2010). The Ultimate History of BMW: From the innovative 328 sports car and the Isetta bubble car to the 5 Series Gran Turismo. Bath: Parragon Books. ISBN 9781407549781.
Schrader, Halwart (2011). BMW: Passion · Power · Perfektion [BMW: Passion · Power · Perfection] (in German). Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. ISBN 9783613033788.
———————— (2016). BMW: Von 1981 bis heute [BMW: From 1981 to today]. Typenkompass series (in German). Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. ISBN 9783613038721.
Werner, Constanze (2006). Kriegswirtschaft und Zwangsarbeit bei BMW [War Economy and Forced Labour at BMW] (in German). München: Oldenbourg. ISBN 3486577921.
External links
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Categories: BMW1916 establishments in GermanyAircraft engine manufacturers of GermanyBelgian Royal Warrant holdersCar brandsCar manufacturers of GermanyCompanies based in BavariaCompanies based in MunichVehicle manufacturing companies established in 1916Manufacturing companies established in 1916Companies in the Euro Stoxx 50Diesel engine manufacturersEmergency services equipment makersGerman companies established in 1916German brandsLuxury motor vehicle manufacturersMotorcycle manufacturers of GermanyMultinational companies headquartered in GermanyQuandt familySports car manufacturers
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Caudron C.800
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January 1919
French aviator Jules Védrines claimed a 25,000 franc prize by landing a Caudron G.3 aircraft on the roof of a department store in Paris, though he was
99 KB (10,524 words) - 05:38, 28 December 2021
July 1919
the first woman to receive a pilot's license, died when the experimental Caudron airplane she was flying in as a passenger crashed at Le Crotoy airfield
79 KB (8,613 words) - 14:21, 5 January 2022
List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft before 1925
of Etain." 12 September A Royal Naval Air Service Short S.38, 65, and a Caudron G.III, 3282, collide at Eastchurch, both pilots killed. 17 November Imperial
251 KB (34,988 words) - 02:56, 19 January 2022
April 1921
Bolland made the first flight across the Andes by a woman, when she flew a Caudron G.3 from Mendoza, Argentina, to Santiago, Chile. Croatia's Republican Peasant
48 KB (5,757 words) - 19:56, 6 January 2022
1914 in New Zealand
Invercargill to Gore, a distance of 61 kilometres (38 mi), in 40 minutes in a Caudron biplane. He continues on to Dunedin, Timaru and Christchurch where he arrives
18 KB (1,698 words) - 12:40, 3 January 2022
2017 in sports
Switzerland February 6 – 12: World Cup #1 in Bursa Winner: Frédéric Caudron March 26 – April 1: World Cup #2 in Luxor Winner: Daniel Sánchez May 22
227 KB (21,545 words) - 04:24, 8 January 2022
Lympne Airport
One aircraft exhibited at the 1936 International Air Rally was a 1912 Caudron G.2. In November, it was reported that 21 Squadron and 34 Squadron of the
106 KB (11,630 words) - 15:40, 13 January 2022
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ErsnäsErsnäs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Ersnäs
Buildings in Ersnäs
Buildings in Ersnäs
Ersnäs is located in NorrbottenErsnäsErsnäs
Show map of Norrbotten
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Coordinates: 65°32′N 21°48′ECoordinates: 65°32′N 21°48′E
Country Sweden
Province Norrbotten
County Norrbotten County
Municipality Luleå Municipality
Area[1]
• Total 0.52 km2 (0.20 sq mi)
Population (31 December 2010)[1]
• Total 292
• Density 565/km2 (1,460/sq mi)
Time zone UTC+1 (CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST)
Ersnäs is a locality situated in Luleå Municipality, Norrbotten County, Sweden with 292 inhabitants in 2010.[1] It is home to Ersnäs IF.
References
"Tätorternas landareal, folkmängd och invånare per km2 2005 och 2010" (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. 14 December 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-01-10. Retrieved 10 January 2012.
John Dodson, 3rd Baron Monk Bretton
re-model a Queen Anne house his great-grandfather, Sir John Dodson, had acquired near Barcombe from the family of Percy Bysshe Shelley. The Dodsons had hitherto
5 KB (596 words) - 16:24, 29 August 2021
James Dodson (mathematician)
James Dodson FRS (c.1705–1757) was a British mathematician, actuary and innovator in the insurance industry. Matthew Maty, in his Mémoire sur la vie et
6 KB (863 words) - 23:43, 31 May 2021
One Day at a Time (1975 TV series)
Mark. Shelley Fabares, who had previously guest-starred as Ann's rival co-worker Francine Webster, appeared more frequently, eventually becoming a regular
28 KB (2,937 words) - 10:26, 17 January 2022
Shelley Penn
Shelley Jane Penn AM (born 1965) is a Melbourne-based award-winning architect, educator, urbanist and built environment advocate. Penn was educated at
14 KB (1,325 words) - 01:27, 17 December 2021
List of American films of 2008
Smigel, Dina Doronne, Shelley Berman, John Paul DeJoria, Alec Mapa, Ahmed Ahmed, Ben Wise, Joseph Marshak, Guri Weinberg, Danny A. Abeckaser, Ido Ezra
152 KB (35 words) - 14:50, 21 January 2022
2000 in film (section A)
Best Actor (Russell Crowe). Dinosaur was the most expensive film of 2000 and a box-office success. 2000 saw the releases of the first installment of popular
239 KB (3,339 words) - 22:08, 13 January 2022
2019 NFL Draft
rounds 4–7 on April 27. The draft featured a record-high 40 trades, surpassing the 37 that were made in 2017. A record-high 111 eligible applicants announced
169 KB (5,757 words) - 22:53, 11 January 2022
Harley Quinn
the series, with Kesel and Dodson both being involved in the storytelling, and Dodson bringing in his wife, Rachel Dodson, to ink. Kesel's run on the
143 KB (15,276 words) - 15:41, 21 January 2022
64th Annual Grammy Awards
Than Ever: A Love Letter to Los Angeles – Billie Eilish Patrick Osborne and Robert Rodriguez, video directors; Michelle An, Chelsea Dodson, Justin Lubliner
81 KB (8,453 words) - 00:31, 21 January 2022
List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) (redirect from List of American Civil War Generals (Confederate) (A through C))
the same. The military laws of the United States required that a person be nominated as a general officer by the president and be confirmed by the Senate
270 KB (1,619 words) - 19:32, 16 January 2022
Ramesses II
scientifique à l'égyptologie". Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 27 February 2015. RPO Editors. "Percy Bysshe Shelley: Ozymandias"
64 KB (7,380 words) - 01:33, 7 December 2021
List of Marvel Comics first appearances
This article contains a list of the first appearances of significant artifacts, characters, locations, species and teams in Marvel Comics, its predecessors
317 KB (2,018 words) - 17:27, 4 January 2022
Maisie Williams
co-starring roles in films such as the romantic period-drama film Mary Shelley (2017), the animated prehistorical sports comedy film Early Man (2018)
122 KB (9,975 words) - 19:29, 12 January 2022
Three's a Crowd (1969 film)
Preeble Gordon Devol as Bellboy Stefani Warren as Connie Dodson Bobby Pickett as Roy Dodson (as Bob Pickett) Maggie Malooly as Madge Bagby Nicky Blair
4 KB (441 words) - 00:43, 26 December 2021
Alpine School District
needed]clarification needed] Dodson, Braley. "Too big? What an Alpine School District split could be like". Daily Herald. Retrieved November 17, 2018. Dodson, Braley. "Too
8 KB (727 words) - 09:45, 6 January 2022
Jim Crow laws
found as early as 1884 in a newspaper article summarizing congressional debate. The term appears in 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about
67 KB (8,290 words) - 03:12, 21 January 2022
Pornography
positions. Hunter, Jack (14 September 2012), "Art or obscene? (blog)", in Dodson, Betty (ed.), Feminism and free speech: pornography, Feminists for Free
94 KB (9,371 words) - 15:27, 24 December 2021
Doom Patrol (TV series)
power of invisibility. Based on the character of Agent !. Wynn Everett as Shelley Byron / The Fog, leader of the Sisterhood of Dada with the ability to alter
104 KB (5,270 words) - 09:02, 21 January 2022
Ancient Egypt (category Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference)
College London. 2003. Archived from the original on 19 March 2008. Dodson (1991), p. 23. Dodson & Ikram (2008), pp. 218, 275–276. Robins (2008), p. 29. Robins
134 KB (16,250 words) - 21:12, 20 January 2022
List of birds by common name (section A)
tyrant Shelley's crimsonwing Shelley's eagle-owl Shelley's francolin Shelley's greenbul Shelley's oliveback Shelley's sparrow Shelley's starling Shelley's
266 KB (28,682 words) - 17:54, 6 December 2021
Center for Open ScienceCenter for Open Science
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Center for Open Science
Center for Open Science.png
URL cos.io, osf.io
Commercial No
Launched 2013; 9 years ago
Current status Active
The Center for Open Science is a non-profit technology organization based in Charlottesville, Virginia with a mission to "increase the openness, integrity, and reproducibility of scientific research."[1] Brian Nosek and Jeffrey Spies founded the organization in January 2013, funded mainly by the Laura and John Arnold Foundation and others.[2]
The organization began with work in reproducibility of psychology research, with the large-scale initiative Reproducibility Project: Psychology.[3][4][5] A second reproducibility project for cancer biology research has also been started through a partnership with Science Exchange.[6] In March 2017, the Center published a detailed strategic plan.[7] Brian Nosek posted a letter outlining the history of the Center and future directions.[8]
Contents
1 Open Science Framework
1.1 Reproducibility project
1.2 Preprints
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Open Science Framework
Reproducibility project
The Open Science Framework (OSF) is an open source software project that facilitates open collaboration in science research. The framework was initially used to work on a project in the reproducibility of psychology research,[9][10] but has subsequently become multidisciplinary.[11] The current reproducibility aspect of the project is a crowdsourced empirical investigation of the reproducibility of a variety of studies from psychological literature, sampling from three major journals: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychological Science, and Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.[12] Scientists from all over the world volunteer to replicate a study of their choosing from these journals, and follow a structured protocol for designing and conducting a high-powered replication of the key effect. The results were published in 2015.[13]
Preprints
In 2016, OSF started three new preprint services: engrXiv, SocArXiv, and PsyArXiv.[14] It subsequently opened its own preprint server in 2017, OSF Preprints.[15] Its unified search function includes preprints from OSF Preprints, alongside those from other servers such as Preprints.org, Thesis Commons, PeerJ, and multiple ArXiv repositories.[16]
See also
Open science
Replication crisis
Metascience
List of academic preprint servers
References
"Center for Open Science". Business Plan. January 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
"Our Sponsors". cos.io. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
"Center for Open Science". Retrieved 11 July 2013.
University of Virginia (4 March 2013). "New Center for Open Science Designed to Increase Research Transparency, Provide Free Technologies for Scientists". UVA Today. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
Bohannon, John (5 March 2013). "Psychologists Launch a Bare-All Research Initiative". Science Magazine. Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
"Reproducibility Initiative Receives $1.3M Grant to Validate 50 Landmark Cancer Studies". Archived from the original on 2015-01-29. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
"COS: Strategic Plan, v2.0". Google Docs. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
"A Brief History of COS 2013-2017". cos.io. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
Estes, Sarah (20 Dec 2012). "The Myth of Self-Correcting Science". The Atlantic. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
Yong, Ed (16 May 2012). "Replication studies: Bad copy". Nature News. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
"OSF | Home". osf.io. Retrieved 2017-04-01.
"Do normative scientific practices and incentive structures produce a biased body of research evidence?".
Open Science Collaboration (2015). "Estimating the reproducibility of Psychological Science" (PDF). Science. 349 (6251): aac4716. doi:10.1126/science.aac4716. hdl:10722/230596. PMID 26315443.
Kelly, Jane (8 December 2016). "Psychology Professor Releases Free, Open-Source, Preprint Software". UVA Today. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
"OSF Preprints". cos.io. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
"Search preprints". osf.io. Retrieved 2021-02-26.
External links
Center for Open Science (official site)
Open Science Framework (official site)
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
General
VIAF 1WorldCat
Name"Names" redirects here. For other uses, see Names (disambiguation) and Name (disambiguation).
Names of places (toponyms) on a road sign indicating their direction in Bali, Indonesia
Names of soldiers killed in the Vietnam War on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial
A cartouche indicates that the Egyptian hieroglyphs enclosed are a royal name.
A name is a term used for identification by an external observer. They can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. The entity identified by a name is called its referent. A personal name identifies, not necessarily uniquely, a specific individual human. The name of a specific entity is sometimes called a proper name (although that term has a philosophical meaning as well) and is, when consisting of only one word, a proper noun. Other nouns are sometimes called "common names" or (obsolete) "general names". A name can be given to a person, place, or thing; for example, parents can give their child a name or a scientist can give an element a name.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Naming conventions
3 Personal name
4 Names of names
5 Brand names
6 Religious names
6.1 Biblical names
6.2 Indian name
6.3 Quranic names (Arabic names)
7 Name use by animals
8 See also
9 References
10 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
The word name comes from Old English nama; cognate with Old High German (OHG) namo, Sanskrit नामन् (nāman), Latin nomen, Greek ὄνομα (onoma), and Persian نام (nâm), from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *h₁nómn̥.[1] Outside Indo-European, it can be connected to Proto-Uralic *nime.
Naming conventions
A naming convention is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria for naming things.
Parents may follow a naming convention when selecting names for their children. Some have chosen alphabetical names by birth order. In some East Asian cultures it is common for one syllable in a two-syllable given name to be a generation name which is the same for immediate siblings. In many cultures it is common for the son to be named after the father or a grandfather. In certain African cultures, such as in Cameroon, the eldest son gets the family name for his given name. In other cultures, the name may include the place of residence, or the place of birth. The Roman naming convention denotes social rank.
Major naming conventions include:
Astronomical naming conventions
In biology, binomial nomenclature
In chemistry, chemical nomenclature
In classics, Roman naming conventions
In computer programming, identifier naming conventions
In computer networking, computer naming schemes
Planetary nomenclature in planetary science
In sciences generally, systematic names for a variety of things
Products may follow a naming convention. Automobiles typically have a binomial name, a "make" (manufacturer) and a "model", in addition to a model year, such as a 2007 Chevrolet Corvette. Sometimes there is a name for the car's "decoration level" or "trim line" as well: e.g., Cadillac Escalade EXT Platinum, after the precious metal. Computers often have increasing numbers in their names to signify the next generation.
Courses at schools typically follow a naming convention: an abbreviation for the subject area and then a number ordered by increasing level of difficulty.
Many numbers (e.g., bank accounts, government IDs, credit cards, etc.) are not random but have an internal structure and convention. Virtually all organizations that assign names or numbers will follow some convention in generating these identifiers. Airline flight numbers, Space Shuttle flight numbers, even phone numbers all have an internal convention.
Personal name
Main article: Personal name
A signature is a person's own handwritten name
A personal name is an identifying word or words by which an individual is intimately known or designated.[2] In many countries, it is traditional for individuals to have a personal name (also called a given name or first name) and a surname (also called a last name or family name because it is shared by members of the same family).[3] Some people have two surnames, one inherited from each parent. In most of Europe and the Americas, the given name typically comes before the surname, whereas in parts of Asia and Hungary the surname comes before the given name. In some cultures it is traditional for a woman to take her husband's surname when she gets married.
A common practice in many countries is patronym which means that a component of a personal name is based on the given name of one's father. A less common practice in countries is matronym which means that a component of a personal name is based on the given name of one’s mother. In some East Asian cultures, it is traditional for given names to include a generation name, a syllable shared between siblings and cousins of the same generation.
Middle names are also used by many people as a third identifier, and can be chosen for personal reasons including signifying relationships, preserving pre-marital/maiden names (a popular practice in the United States), and to perpetuate family names. The practice of using middle names dates back to ancient Rome, where it was common for members of the elite to have a praenomen (a personal name), a nomen (a family name, not exactly used the way middle names are used today), and a cognomen (a name representing an individual attribute or the specific branch of a person's family).[4] Middle names eventually fell out of use, but regained popularity in Europe during the nineteenth century.[4]
Besides first, middle, and last names, individuals may also have nicknames, aliases, or titles. Nicknames are informal names used by friends or family to refer to a person ("Chris" may be used as a short form of the personal name "Christopher"). A person may choose to use an alias, or a fake name, instead of their real name, possibly to protect or obscure their identity. People may also have titles designating their role in an institution or profession (members of royal families may use various terms such as King, Queen, Duke, or Duchess to signify their positions of authority or their relation to the throne).[3]
Names of names
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In onomastic terminology, personal names of men are called andronyms (from Ancient Greek ἀνήρ / man, and ὄνομα / name),[5] while personal names of women are called gynonyms (from Ancient Greek γυνή / woman, and ὄνομα / name).[6]
Names of humans (anthroponyms)
Name of ... Name of name
Full name of a person Personal name
First name of a person Given name
Family name Surname
Residents of a locality Demonym
Ethnic group Ethnonym
False or assumed name Pseudonym
Pseudonym of an author Pen name
Pseudonym of a performer Stage name
Other names -onym-suffixed words
Names of non-human entities
Name of a... Name of name
Any geographical object Toponym
Body of water Hydronym
Mountain or hill Oronym
Region or country Choronym
Any inhabited locality Econym
Village Comonym
Town or city Astionym
Cosmic object Cosmonym
Star Astronym
Other names -onym-suffixed words
Brand names
Main article: Brand
Developing a name for a brand or product is heavily influenced by marketing research and strategy to be appealing and marketable. The brand name is often a neologism or pseudoword, such as Kodak or Sony.
Religious names
Globe icon.
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: Religious name
Two charts from an Arabic copy of the Secretum Secretorum for determining whether a person will live or die based on the numerical value of the patient's name.
In the ancient world, particularly in the ancient near-east (Israel, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia) names were thought to be extremely powerful and act, in some ways, as a separate manifestation of a person or deity.[7] This viewpoint is responsible both for the reluctance to use the proper name of God in Hebrew writing or speech, as well as the common understanding in ancient magic that magical rituals had to be carried out "in [someone's] name". By invoking a god or spirit by name, one was thought to be able to summon that spirit's power for some kind of miracle or magic (see Luke 9:49, in which the disciples claim to have seen a man driving out demons using the name of Jesus). This understanding passed into later religious tradition, for example the stipulation in Catholic exorcism that the demon cannot be expelled until the exorcist has forced it to give up its name, at which point the name may be used in a stern command which will drive the demon away.
Biblical names
Main article: List of biblical names
In the Old Testament, the names of individuals are meaningful, and a change of name indicates a change of status. For example, the patriarch Abram and his wife Sarai were renamed "Abraham" and "Sarah" at the institution of the Abrahamic covenant (Genesis 17:4, 17:15). Simon was renamed Peter when he was given the Keys to Heaven. This is recounted in the Gospel of Matthew chapter 16, which according to Roman Catholic teaching[8] was when Jesus promised to Saint Peter the power to take binding actions.[9] Proper names are "saturated with meaning".[10]
Throughout the Bible, characters are given names at birth that reflect something of significance or describe the course of their lives. For example: Solomon meant peace,[11] and the king with that name was the first whose reign was without war.[12] Likewise, Joseph named his firstborn son Manasseh (Hebrew: "causing to forget")(Genesis 41:51); when Joseph also said, "God has made me forget all my troubles and everyone in my father's family." Biblical Jewish people did not have surnames which were passed from generation to generation. However, they were typically known as the child of their father. For example: דוד בן ישי (David ben Yishay) meaning, David, son of Jesse (1 Samuel 17:12,58). Today, this style of name is still used in Jewish religious rites.
Indian name
Main article: Indian name
Indian names are based on a variety of systems and naming conventions, which vary from region to region. Names are also influenced by religion and caste and may come from epics. India's population speaks a wide variety of languages and nearly every major religion in the world has a following in India. This variety makes for subtle, often confusing, differences in names and naming styles. Due to historical Indian cultural influences, several names across South and Southeast Asia are influenced by or adapted from Indian names or words.
For some Indians, their birth name is different from their official name; the birth name starts with a randomly selected name from the person's horoscope (based on the nakshatra or lunar mansion corresponding to the person's birth).
Many children are given three names, sometimes as a part of religious teaching.
Quranic names (Arabic names)
Further information: List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran
We can see many Arabic names in the Quran and in Muslim people, such as Allah, Muhammad, Khwaja, Ismail, Mehboob, Suhelahmed, Shoheb Ameena, Aaisha, Sameena, Rumana, Swaleha, etc. The names Mohammed and Ahmed are the same, for example Suhel Ahmad or Mohammad Suhel are the same. There are many similar names in Islam and Christianity, such as Yosef (Islamic)/Joseph (Christian), Adam/Adam, Dawood/David, Rumana/Romana, Maryam/Mary, Nuh/Noah, etc.
Name use by animals
The use of personal names is not unique to humans. Dolphins[13] and green-rumped parrotlets[14] also use symbolic names to address contact calls to specific individuals. Individual dolphins have distinctive signature whistles, to which they will respond even when there is no other information to clarify which dolphin is being referred to.
See also
Chinese name
Human names
Legal name
List of adjectival forms of place names
Name calling – a form of verbal abuse
Names of God
Numeral (linguistics)
Onomastics – the study of proper names
Popular cat names
Title (publishing)
References
"Online Etymology Dictionary". Archived from the original on 2008-09-28. Retrieved 2008-09-20.; The asterisk before a word indicates that it is a hypothetical construction, not an attested form.
"personal name". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
"General words for names, and types of name". macmillandictionary.com. Macmillan Dictionary. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Fabry, Merrill (August 16, 2016). "Now You Know: Why Do We Have Middle Names?" (web article). Time.com. Time. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
Room 1996, p. 6.
Barolini 2005, p. 91, 98.
"Egyptian Religion", E. A. Wallis Budge", Arkana 1987 edition, ISBN 0-14-019017-1
Catechism of the Catholic Church, para 881: "The episcopal college and its head, the Pope" Archived 2010-09-06 at the Wayback Machine
The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church by Gerard Mannion and Lewis S. Mudge (Jan 30, 2008) ISBN 0415374200 page 235
Baruch Hochman, Character in Literature (Cornell University Press, 1985), 37.
Campbell, Mike. "Meaning, origin and history of the name Solomon". Behind the Name. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
"Solomon, the King". www.dawnbible.com. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
"Dolphins Name Themselves With Whistles, Study Says". National Geographic News. May 8, 2006. Archived from the original on November 14, 2006.
Berg, Karl S.; Delgado, Soraya; Okawa, Rae; Beissinger, Steven R.; Bradbury, Jack W. (2011-01-01). "Contact calls are used for individual mate recognition in free-ranging green-rumped parrotlets, Forpus passerinus". Animal Behaviour. 81 (1): 241–248. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.10.012. ISSN 0003-3472. S2CID 42150361.
Sources
Barolini, Teodolinda, ed. (2005). Medieval Constructions in Gender And Identity: Essays in Honor of Joan M. Ferrante. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. ISBN 9780866983372.
Bruck, Gabriele vom; Bodenhorn, Barbara, eds. (2009) [2006]. An Anthropology of Names and Naming (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fraser, Peter M. (2000). "Ethnics as Personal Names". Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 149–157.
Roberts, Michael (2017). "The Semantics of Demonyms in English". The Semantics of Nouns. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 205–220. ISBN 978-0-19-873672-1.
Room, Adrian (1996). An Alphabetical Guide to the Language of Name Studies. Lanham and London: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810831698.
Further reading
"Names" by Sam Cumming, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP), a philosophical dissertation on the syntax and semantics of names
Pilcher, Jane (2017). "Names, Bodies and Identities". Sociology. 50 (4): 764–779. doi:10.1177/0038038515582157. S2CID 145136869.
Matthews, Elaine; Hornblower, Simon; Fraser, Peter Marshall, Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, Proceedings of the British Academy (104), Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-726216-3
Name and Form – from Sacred Texts Buddhism
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Name
Wikimedia Commons has media related to names.
Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, Oxford (over 35,000 published names)
Behind The Name, The etymology of first names
The Name Tradition In The Christian Culture
Kate Monk's Onomastikon Names over the world throughout the history
"Name" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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